it 


s 


i 


BUDDHIST  ART 


IN  ITS  HELATION  TO 

BUDDHIST  IDEALS 

WITH  SPECIAL  REFERENCE  TO  BUDDHISM  IN 
JAPAN 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/buddhistartinits00anes_0 


PLATE  I 


Amita  Triad  rising  over  Hills 
Traditionally  ascribed  to  Eshin  S5zu  Genshin 
Japanese,  942-1017 

Owned  by  the  Konkai  Komyo-Ji,  Kyoto, 
and  now  deposited  in  the  Imperial  Museum,  Kyoto 

This  group  of  Amita  Buddha  with  Kwannon  on  the  right 
and  Seishi  on  the  left  is  generally  believed  by  critics  to  be 
a work  of  the  Kamakura  period  (thirteenth  century) ; but  in 
the  author’s  opinion  the  traditional  ascription  should  be  ac- 
cepted. The  text  inscribed  on  the  two  upper  corners  expresses 
the  artist’s  devotion  to  Buddha,  and  in  this  inscription  the 
author  sees  Eshin’s  autograph. 


MUSEUM  OF  FINE  ARTS,  BOSTON 


BUDDHIST  ART 

IN  ITS  RELATION  TO 
BUDDHIST  IDEALS 

WITH  SPECIAL  REFERENCE  TO  BUDDHISM  IN 

JAPAN 

FOUR  LECTURES  GIVEN 
AT  THE  MUSEUM 

By  M.  ANESAKI,  M.A.,  Litt.D. 

Professor  of  the  Science  of  Religion  in  the  Imperial  University  of  Tokyo 
and  Professor  of  Japanese  Literature  and  Life 
in  Harvard  University 
1913-1915 


BOSTON  AND  NEW  YORK 

HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 


MDCCCCXV 


COPYRIGHT,  1915,  BY  MUSEUM  OF  FINE  ARTS,  BOSTON 
ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 


Published  November  igiS 


DEDICATED  TO 

THE  PIOUS  AND  BEAUTIFUL  SOUL 
OF 

SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 


Di  quesln  cosla,  Id  dov’  elln  J'range 

Pill  sua  raltezza,  nacque  al  moiido  un  sole, 
Come  fn  queslo  lalvoUn  di  Gauge. 

Perd  ehi  d'esso  loco  j'a  parole 

Non  dica  Ascesi,  clie  direbbe  rorto, 

Ma  Orienle,  se.  proprio  dir  vuole. 

DA^TE,  Parndiso. 


PREFACE 


The  present  volume  is  the  result  of  four  Thursday  Conferences  given  at 
the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston,  in  January  and  February  of  igid-  The 
object  of  the  lectures  was,  as  the  title  expresses  it,  to  elucidate  the  ideas 
and  ideals  which  inspired  Buddhist  artists,  and  to  give  some  account  of 
the  legends  which  they  illustrated.  In  treating  of  these  matters  I have 
dwelt  very  largely  on  Japanese  Buddhism,  not  only  because  it  is  a subject 
with  which  I am  intimate,  but  also  because  I think  Japanese  Buddhism  is 
representative,  more  than  Indian  and  Chinese,  of  a continuous  develop- 
ment both  in  doctrine  and  in  art.  If  I had  attempted  a history  of  Buddhist 
art  in  all  the  phases  of  its  development,  my  plan  must  necessarily  have 
been  quite  different.  In  that  case,  the  derivation  of  Chinese  Buddhist  art 
from  Indian  sources  in  the  centuries  preceding  the  sixth,  the  development 
of  the  T‘ang  art  into  that  of  the  Sung  and  then  into  the  Japanese  art  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  and  other  similar  matters,  would  have  been  dis- 
cussed. But  in  spite  of  the  rich  material  brought  out  in  recent  years  from 
China  and  central  Asia,  and  in  spite  of  the  systematic  studies  made  by 
scholars  on  the  relics  of  Chinese  art  existing  in  Japan,  there  are  various 
obscure  points,  such  as  the  relation  between  the  diverse  streams  of  Indian 
art  and  the  Chinese  art  of  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries,  or  the  origin 
of  the  Shingon  (or  Mantra)  Buddhism  and  of  its  iconography,  at  which  it 
has  been  possible  merely  to  hint  in  the  following  pages.  Thus  the  main 
purpose  of  the  present  volume  is  to  provide  an  elucidation  of  Buddhist  art 
in  its  developed  form,  though  endeavors  have  also  been  made  to  show  its 
intrinsic  connection  with  the  fundamental  ideas  of  Buddhism.  Let  me 
add  that  inasmuch  as  the  paintings,  statues,  etc.,  reproduced  throughout 
the  book  are  primarily  intended  to  illustrate  the  Buddhist  religion,  it  has 
been  necessary,  in  one  or  two  instances,  to  introduce  objects  of  secondary 
importance  as  examples  of  Buddhist  art. 

And  here  I would  say  a few  words  in  regard  to  my  personal  contact  with 


Vlll 


PREFACE 


Buddhist  art.  I was  born  in  Kyoto,  the  centre  of  Japanese  Buddhism  and 
Buddhist  art,  and  was,  in  my  early  years,  quite  intimate  with  the  relics 
of  art  stored  in  the  temples  in  and  about  the  city.  But  my  sense  for  art  was 
overshadowed  by  my  study  of  philosophy,  especially  of  English  agnosti- 
cism. Later,  when  I studied  German  idealism,  during  my  student  years  in 
Tokyo  and  in  Germany,  a revival  of  Buddhist  idealism  became  a powerful 
factor  of  my  mental  life,  and  enabled  me  to  appreciate  more  deeply  than 
ever  before  the  ideals  of  the  Buddhist  and  the  Christian  religions.  My 
journeys  in  Italy,  in  1902  and  in  1908,  especially  the  latter,  had  the  effect 
of  awakening  my  remembrance  of  Buddhist  art,  and  thus  a high  admi- 
ration for  Buddhist  painting  has  become  inseparably  connected  with  a 
similar  feeling  for  that  of  the  Italian  Quattrocentists,  just  as  my  devotion 
to  Honen,  the  pietist  saint  of  Japanese  Buddhism,  has  been  linked  with 
my  reverent  attachment  to  the  Christian  saint  who  preached  to  birds 
and  wrote  the  Canticle  of  the  Sun.  This  I say  in  order  rather  to  explain 
my  reasons  for  dedicating  this  volume  to  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  than  to 
afford  an  opportunity  for  speaking  of  myself.  May  I hope  that  my 
Catholic  friends,  especially  those  of  the  Order  of  Minor  Friars,  will  not 
take  this  as  a sacrilege.^ 

I wish  to  avail  myself  of  this  opportunity  to  express  my  gratitude  to 
Dr.  Fairbanks,  Director  of  the  Museum,  who  first  suggested  the  publica- 
tion of  these  lectures  in  book  form;  to  Mr.  F.  S.  Kershaw,  who  was  kind 
enough  to  give  me  the  benefit  of  his  comment  on  the  first  two  lectures; 
and  particularly  to  Dr.W.  S.  Bigelow,  who  has  afforded  me  much  indispen- 
sable encouragement  and  advice.  Special  thanks,  however,  are  due  to  Mr. 
J.  E.  Lodge,  Assistant  Curator  in  Charge  of  the  Department  of  Chinese 
and  Japanese  Art,  who  has  done  everything  for  me  in  selecting  material, 
in  revising  the  manuscripts,  and  in  supervising  the  publication;  — indeed 
without  his  kind  and  painstaking  help  this  book  would  have  been  im- 
possible. 

M.  Anesaki. 

Camuridoe,  May,  19ii. 


NOTE  ON  TRANSLITERATION 


The  following  brief  indications  may  be  found  helpful  in  the  pronunciation  of  unfa- 
miliar Sanskrit,  Pali,  Chinese,  and  Japanese  words. 

In  Sanskrit  and  Pali,  the  vowels  are  pronounced  as  in  Italian  or  Spanish;  S and  s are 
soft,  — something  like  sh  in  English;  d and  t are  pure  lingual  consonants,  — not  dental 
as  in  English;  n is  also  a pure  lingual  consonant,  — not  nasal;  th  and  dh  are  pronounced 
like  the  italicized  letters  in  the  phrases  ‘hii  hard'  and  ‘hard /nt’  respectively. 

In  Chinese,  according  to  Wade’s  system  of  transliteration,  a is  usually  long  as  in 
‘father’;  e short  as  in  ‘yet’;  e,  much  like  the  vowel  sound  in  the  German  ‘schon,’  except 
before  n,  when  it  is  like  the  vowel  sound  in  ‘sun’;  i long  as  in  ‘machine,’  except  before 
n,  when  it  is  short  as  in  ‘pin’;  o not  quite  so  broad  as  the  ‘aw’  in  ‘saw’;  ii  like  the 
vowel  sound  in  ‘too,’  except  before  n,  when  it  resembles  the  vowel  sound  in  ‘look’;  ii 
like  the  French  ‘ u ’ in  ‘ du  ’ ; ii,  something  like  the  vowel  sound  in  the  first  syllable  of 
‘surround’;  on,  something  like  the  vowel  sound  in  ‘foe’;  ai  as  in  ‘aisle’;  ei  like  the 
vowel  sound  in  ‘say’;  in  other  vowel  combinations  each  letter  retains  its  original 
force;  ch  is  hard  as  in  ‘church ’;y  is  soft  like  the  ‘s’  in  ‘vision’;  hs  approximately  like  ‘sh’ 
in  English.  The  inverted  comma  in  T'ang,  Clian  and  other  words  indicates  a gentle 
aspirate. 

In  Japanese  the  vowels  are  sounded  as  in  Italian  or  Spanish.  Each  member  of  a 
diphthong  or  other  vowel  combination  retains  its  original  force,  and  the  important 
distinction  between  a long  and  a short  vowel  results  from  duration  of  utterance  rather 
than  from  any  change  in  sound.  The  consonants  are  pronounced  approximately  as  in 
English.  G is  hard  as  in  ‘give,’  and  double  consonants  should  be  pronounced  really 
double,  as  in  ‘sho/-/ower’  or  ‘coc^-crow.’  There  is  practically  no  tonic  accent,  though 
a similar  effect  is  produced  by  the  prolongation  of  the  long  vowels  and  by  the  enun- 
ciation of  double  consonants. 


CONTENTS 


I.  The  Life  of  Buddha,  the  Foundation  of  the  Buddhist 

Religion,  and  the  Beginning  of  its  Art  . . . i 

II.  The  Buddhist  Ideal  of  Communion  in  Japanese  Art  . 19 

III.  Buddhist  Cosmotheism  and  the  Symrolism  of  its  Art  . .3i 

IV.  Buddhist  Naturalism  and  Individualism:  the  Transition 

FROM  Religious  to  Secular  Arts 47 

Birliography 63 

Index 69 


LIST  OF  PLATES 


I.  Amita  Triad  rising  over  Hills.  Traditionally  as- 

CRiRED  to  Eshin  S5zu  Genshin  , . . Frontispiece 

II.  A Buddhist  Memorial  Stela lo 

III.  Top  of  the  North  Gateway  to  the  Great  Stupa  at 

Sanchi,  India,  seen  from  within  . . . . ii 

IV.  (A  & B)  Gandhara  Sculptures 12 

V.  Detail  from  the  Wall-Paintings  in  the  Golden  Hall 

OF  Horyu-ji  .........  i5 

VI.  The  Hokke  Mandala 17 

VII.  Kwannon  as  the  Merciful  All-Mother.  By  Kano 

Hogai 17 

VIII.  (A)  The  Golden  Hall,  Gateway  and  Pagoda  of  Horyu-.ti  22 

(B)  West  Front  of  the  Hokke-do  of  Todai-ji,  Nara  . 28 


IX.  (A  & B)  Two  OF  THE  Four  Guardian  Kings  . . 24 

X.  Brahma,  King  of  the  Heavenly  Hosts  . . .26 

XI.  Amita  Buddha  and  Twenty-five  Bodhisattva.  By 

Eshin  Sozu  Genshin 28 

XII.  The  Great  Amita  Buddha  at  Kamakura  . . .28 

XIII.  The  Amita  Triad 28 

XIV.  Dai-nichi,  the  Great  Illuminator  . . . .34 

XV.  Fudo  and  his  Attendants 34 

XVI.  (A  & B)  Shuji  Mandala 3g 

XVII.  Dai-Itoku-myowo,  the  Great  Ma.testic  Power  . . 43 

XVIII.  Aizen-myowo,  the  Great  Passion 44 


XIV 


LIST  OF  PLATES 


XIX.  Kwannon 44 

XX.  (A,  B,  & C)  Kwannon 44 

XXL  Jizo,  THE  Earth-Womb 44 

XXII.  Kokuzo,  the  Sky-Womb 44 

XXIII.  Kokuzo,  the  Sky-Womb 44 

XXIV.  Monju,  the  Charming  Splendor  . . . .45 

XXV.  Monju,  the  Charming  Splendor  . . . .45 

XXVI.  Fugen,  the  All-pervading  Wisdom  . . . .45 

XXVII.  (A,  B,  & C)  The  Shaka  Triad 45 

XXVIII.  A Syncretic  Mandala 45 

XXIX.  A Landscape.  By  Sesshu 4? 

XXX.  Ideal  Portrait  of  Bodhidharma.  By  Men  Wu-kuan 

(Mon-mukwan) 4? 

XXXI.  Shaka.  In  the  style  of  Kano  Utanosuke  . . 54 

XXXII.  White-robed  Kwannon.  By  Kano  Motonobu  . . 54 

XXXIII.  Kwannon.  In  the  style  of  Sesshu  . . . .55 

XXXIV.  Monju.  By  Kano  Tany5 55 

XXXV.  Monju.  By  Hosetsu 55 

XXXVI.  The  Arhant  (Rakan)  Ananda  feeding  a Hungry 

Ghost.  By  Chou  Chi-chang  (Shu-kijo)  and  Lin  55 
T‘ing-kuei  (Rin-teikei) 55 

XXXVII.  The  Arhant  (Rakan)  Darbha  Malli-putra  ascending 
TO  THE  Sky.  By  Chou  Chi-chang  (Shu-kijo)  and  Lin 
T‘ing-kuei  (Rin-teikei) 55 

XXXVIII.  The  Three  Laughers  of  Hu-hsi  (Kokei).  By  Soga 

Shohaku 56 

XXXIX.  Han-Shan  (Kanzan)  and  Shih-Te  (Jittoku)  . . 56 

XL.  Shih-Te  (Jittoku).  By  Gei-ami 56 


LIST  OF  PLATES 


XV 


XLL  A Chinese  Landscape.  In  the  style  of  Soga  Shu- 

BUN 56 

XLIL  A Chinese  Landscape.  By  Josetsu  . . . .56 

XLIII.  (A  & B)  Dragon  and  Tiger.  By  Hasegawa  Tohaku  . 58 

XLIV.  A Travesty  on  Fugen.  By  Katsukawa  Shunsho  . 5q 

XLV.  A Travesty  on  Han-Shan  (Kanzan)  and  Shih-Te 

(JiTTOKu).  By  Katsukawa  Shunsho  . . 09 

XLVI.  A Cormorant.  By  Miyamoto  Musashi  . . .60 

XLVII.  Sparrow  and  Chrysanthemums.  By  Kenzan  . . 60 


BUDDHIST  ART 

IN  ITS  RELATION  TO 

BUDDHIST  IDEALS 

WITH  SPECIAL  UEFEHENGE  TO  BUDDHISM  IN 
JAPAN 


BUDDHIST  ART  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO 
BUDDHIST  IDEALS 


I 

THE  LIFE  OF  BUDDHA,  THE  FOUNDATION  OF  THE  BUDDHIST  RELIGION,  AND 

THE  BEGINNING  OF  ITS  ART 

It  is  almost  needless  to  say  that  art  and  religion  are  two  of  the  most 
potent  factors  of  human  life.  Art  stimulates  fancy  by  visualizing  and 
perpetuating  beauty ; it  also  tranquillizes  the  mind  of  man  by  inducing  it 
to  contemplate  what  underlies  the  loveliness  of  forms  and  colors.  Religion 
gives  man  new  life;  it  is  an  inspiration  to  the  vigorous  and  a consolation 
to  the  weak;  it  incites  man  to  activity,  even  to  the  risk  of  death,  but  it 
also  pacifies  him  and  transforms  the  wolf  into  a lamb.  These  two  factors 
have  almost  always  been  associated  throughout  the  history  of  mankind. 
Religious  faith  has  invariably  found  expression  in  art,  which,  in  turn,  has 
derived  the  inspiration  of  its  highest  achievement  from  religion.  Is  this 
association  of  art  and  religion  a chance,  a passing  phenomenon,  or  is  there 
any  necessary  connection  inherent  in  the  nature  of  both.^  On  this  point 
it  is  not  my  purpose  to  theorize;  I shall  try,  rather,  to  illustrate  the  inner 
relationship  of  Ruddhist  art  and  religion  by  tracing  to  their  source  the 
ideals  and  beliefs  of  Ruddhism. 

Refore  taking  up  my  subject,  however,  there  is  one  matter  to  which  I 
would  call  attention.  Curiously  there  prevails  in  the  West  an  impression 
that  Ruddhism  is  a religion  of  mere  negation  and  pure  abstraction.  Here 
I shall  not  argue.  I simply  wish  to  point  out  that  he  will  never  under- 
stand Ruddhist  art  who  does  not  free  his  mind  from  such  a preconception. 
Ruddhism  exhorts  its  followers  to  overstep  the  bounds  of  self  and  enter 
the  ideal  community  of  spiritual  life.  This  teaching  is,  to  be  sure,  a nega- 
tion of  the  bondage  of  individual  limitations;  but  it  is  equally  an  affirmation 
of  a life  broader  than  the  individual.  It  may  be  called  withdrawal  from 


2 


I.  BUDDHISM  AND  ITS  ART 


the  material  world,  but  it  is  also  an  entrance  into  the  larger  world  of 
ideals.  It  was  this  breadth  of  mental  vista  and  depth  of  sympathy  that 
made  Buddhism  a universal  religion  and  gave  inspiration  to  artistic  genius. 
The  ideal  of  the  Buddhist  faith  consists  in  realizing,  through  spiritual  ex- 
perience and  in  moral  acts,  the  continuity  of  life  in  man  and  nature  and 
the  fellowship  of  all  beings.  This  ideal  was  the  soil  which  nourished  the 
stem  of  the  Buddhist  religion  and  the  flowers  of  Buddhist  art.  Tlie  seed 
sown  was  the  person  of  Buddha,  the  Sage  of  the  Sakya  clan,  who  was 
born  about  twenty-five  hundred  years  ago  in  India.  He  proclaimed  this 
ideal  to  mankind,  and  it  was  the  pious  remembrance  of  his  person,  on  the 
part  of  his  followers,  that  gave  to  Buddhist  art  its  first  impetus.  Who, 
then,  was  he.^  What  did  he  teach 

It  was  among  the  luxurious  growth  of  a tropical  flora,  in  the  royal  gar- 
dens at  Kapilavastu,  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas,  that  a young  prince 
pondered  over  the  questions  pressing  upon  his  mind:  What  is  life?  Whence 
have  we  come?  Whither  are  we  going?  The  foliage  and  flowers  swaying  in 
the  glorious  sunshine,  the  snow-clad  peaks  floating  far  off  in  tlie  pale 
moonlight,  the  fireflies  glowing  in  the  darkness  of  night  and  flying  in 
swarms  among  the  trees,  — each  of  these  seemed  to  him  to  be  telling  of 
the  evanescence  of  worldly  things.  The  gay  sing-song  of  the  dancing- 
girls,  the  melodies  of  lutes  and  cymbals,  the  gorgeous  feasts  and  proces- 
sions, the  ostentatious  celebration  of  festivals,  all  these  things,  offered  for 
his  pleasure,  were  but  torture  inflicted  upon  his  meditative  mind.  At  last 
the  worldly  life  of  a prince  became  unbearable  to  him.  He  fled  out  of  his 
father’s  palace  and  became  a recluse.  Wandering  among  forests  he  thought 
over  the  same  problems  again  and  again,  seeking  a final  solution.  “Life  is 
subject  to  age  and  death.  Where  is  the  realm  of  life  in  which  there  is 
neither  age  nor  death?  What  is  our  life,  — made  up  of  body  and  mind,  of 
perceptions  and  emotions?  Is  there  no  haven  where  we  can  be  free  from 
sorrows  and  agonies?”  Years  passed  in  these  meditations  and  in  the  prac- 
tice of  self-mortification. 

At  last,  while  he  was  sitting  under  the  pendent  branches  and  rustling 


LIFE  OF  BUDDHA 


3 


leaves  of  a pippala  tree  near  Gaya,  and  when  the  morning  star  glittered  in 
the  transparent  sky  of  the  east,  the  light  of  illumination  dawned  u[)on  his 
mind.  The  final  solution  was,  after  all,  quite  a simple  one:  that  selfishness 
is  the  root  of  all  sorrows  and  vices.  Peace  came  to  his  mind  with  the 
conviction  that  man  is  tormented  by  greed  for  gain  or  by  sorrow  for  loss 
simply  because  he  is  held  captive  within  the  narrow  limits  of  self-inter- 
est, and  that  beyond  this  captivity  stretches  out  a vast  expanse  of  univer- 
sal life.  The  individual  is  destined  to  die,  together  with  the  passing  phases 
of  his  existence.  But  life  itself  never  dies,  since  it  persists  in  the  lives  of 
those  who  have  grasped  the  truth  and  found  the  real  life  in  that  which  is 
common  to  all.  This  is  the  truth  of  universal  and  everlasting  life,  the  basic 
unity  and  the  ultimate  goal  of  all  separate  existences.  In  this  new  life  the 
solitary  seeker  realized  his  spiritual  fellowship  with  the  Enlightened 
{Buddha)  or  Truth-winners  {Tathdgata)  of  the  past,  sages  of  old  who  had 
trodden  the  same  way  and  reached  the  final  destination.  His  whole  being 
underwent  a complete  transformation  through  the  force  of  his  simple  but 
permanent  acceptance  of  life  transfigured  into  the  universal  communion  of 
truth.  The  lonely  recluse  had  become  a Buddha  or  Tathdgata.  Then  he 
bathed  in  the  cool  water  of  the  river  flowing  past  his  seat  and  cleansed  his 
body  just  as  he  had  cleansed  his  mind.  For  a while  he  remained  under  the 
pippala  tree  ^ and  enjoyed,  in  the  serene  atmosphere  of  the  shadowy  spot, 
the  light  of  his  spiritual  illumination. 

Once  a royal  prince,  then  an  ascetic,  and  at  last  a Truth-winner,  he  was 
no  more  a slave  of  life  and  of  its  pleasure  and  pain,  but  a master  of  the 
truth  of  universal  life.  Yet  there  remained  for  him  a further  question: 
Should  he  enjoy  this  enlightenment  within  himself  alone,  as  former  sages 
had  done,  or  should  he  proclaim  it  to  others,  that  they  might  be  induced 
to  seek  the  same  attainment.^  While  he  was  thinking  of  this,  it  is  said, 
Brahma,  the  lord  of  the  heavenly  hosts,  came  down  to  his  side  and  ad- 
monished him  to  enlighten  others  in  the  same  truth.  Buddha  looked  with 
his  spiritual  eyes  the  world  over,  and  compassion  for  his  fellow  beings  took 

* Thereafter  called  the  Bodhi  tree,  because  under  it  Buddha  attained  Bodhi  (Enlightenment).  The 
corrupt  form,  Bo  tree  is  also  common. 


4 


I.  BUDDHISM  AND  ITS  ART 


possession  of  his  mind.  He  saw  them,  as  it  is  told,  like  lotus  stems  and 
buds  in  a lake,  some  immersed  in  the  mud,  others  coming  out  of  it  or  just 
appearing  above  the  water,  and  still  others  beginning  to  blossom.  Seeing 
this  he  determined  to  bring  them  all  to  full  bloom  and  to  the  bearing  of 
fruit.  ^ In  other  words,  he  became  convinced  of  the  possibility  and  neces- 
sity of  extending  the  communion  of  the  Truth-winners  to  all  sentient  be- 
ings, who  should  in  turn  become  the  future  Truth-winners.  The  spiritual 
tie  which  connected  his  life  with  the  sages  of  old  must  be  destined  to  em- 
brace those  still  outside  the  pale;  because  the  truth,  by  realization  of 
which  he  had  become  the  Buddha,  should  be  common  to  the  lives  and 
minds  of  all.  Every  one  overcoming  the  restrictions  of  his  selfish  envelope 
could  realize  his  spiritual  fellowship  with  all  others  and  could  practice  that 
ideal  relation  in  the  transfigured  life  of  love  and  compassion.  Moreover,  it 
was  clearly  seen  by  Buddha  that  his  own  perception  of  the  truth  would  be 
in  vain,  unless  it  should  really  lead  his  fellow  beings  to  the  same  com- 
munion of  universal  life. 

Faithful  to  his  conviction  and  firm  in  his  determination,  Buddha  started 
on  a missionary  journey,  “to  turn  the  indestructible  wheel  of  truth,”  “to 
pour  the  blessing-rain  of  truth,”  for  the  sake  of  others.  With  this  purpose 
he  turned  his  steps  to  Kasi  (Benares),  the  holy  metropolis  of  all  India, 
and  preached  there  to  five  ascetics,  who  were  soon  converted  to  his  faith. 
This  was  the  first  step  toward  realizing  the  extension  of  the  ideal  commu- 
nity of  life,  the  nucleus  of  the  Buddhist  communion  (Sangha)  among  man- 
kind. It  is  said  that  all  the  heavenly  hosts  came  together  at  the  scene  of 
the  sermon  and  sang  in  adoration  of  the  Truth  (Dharma).  An  Enlight- 
ened One,  a sage,  thus  became  the  Master  of  Truth  and  the  leader  of 
men  and  celestial  beings.  The  Tathdgata  was  no  more  the  “One  who  has 
gone  beyond,”  but  the  “ One  who  has  come  down  ” to  lead  others;  not  only 
the  Truth-winner,  but  also  the  Truth-revealer;  and  Buddha’s  person  as 
such  a Truth-revealer,  together  with  the  Dharma  he  revealed  and  the 

1 For  the  description  of  these  steps  in  Buddha’s  determination,  see  K.  E.  Neumann,  Die  Reden  Gotamo 
Buddho's,  vol.  i,  pp.  259-79.  Attention  is  also  called  to  the  importance  of  the  simile  of  the  lotus,  especially 
in  reference  to  the  “Lotus  of  Truth”  of  which  I shall  presently  speak  {page  15  ff).  Brahma,  the  Heavenly 
Lord,  as  he  appears  in  a Japanese  work  of  sculpture,  will  he  referred  to  in  the  second  chapter. 


FOUNDATION  OF  THE  BUDDHIST  RELIGION 


5 


Sangha  he  founded,  make  up  the  Three  Treasures,  or  Holy  Trinity,  of  the 
Buddhist  religion. 

Soon  the  Buddhist  communion  was  extended,  in  the  early  stages  of 
Buddha’s  ministry,  to  tens  and  hundreds.  These  the  Master  sent  to 
preach  everywhere  “the  Truth  which  is  glorious  at  its  start,  glorious  at  its 
climax,  glorious  in  its  consummation,”  for  the  “weal  and  the  welfare  of 
many  people,  and  out  of  compassion  for  the  world.”  ^ Buddha  himself 
passed  the  rest  of  his  life,  nearly  fifty  years,  in  missionary  journeys,  in 
preaching  his  gospel,  consoling  the  afflicted,  rescuing  pest-stricken  regions, 
and  mediating  between  combatant  parties.  He  was  revered  as  the  Mas- 
ter, the  Lord  of  Truth,  the  King  of  Law.^  His  community  embraced  all 
those  who  followed  him,  without  regard  to  distinctions  of  caste  or  capa- 
bility. His  disciples  went  everywhere  in  India,  even  outside  its  boundaries 
and  beyond  the  Indus  to  countries  inhabited  by  fierce  barbarians.  Mis- 
sions to  foreign  lands  were  carried  out  still  more  extensively  and  vigor- 
ously in  the  third  century  b.c.  by  the  pious  King  Asoka,  penetrating  even 
to  Greece  and  Egypt  in  the  West  and  to  the  inland  borders  of  China  in  the 
East.  These  missionary  activities  had  important  bearing  not  only  upon 
the  propagation  of  Buddhist  teachings,  but  also  upon  the  development  of 
its  art,  as  we  shall  presently  see. 

Thus  it  was  the  personal  inspiration  of  Buddha  that  laid  the  foundation 
of  his  religion,  the  religion  taught  by  him  as  well  as  the  religion  of  faith  in 
him.  This  religion  was  the  result  of  his  enlightenment,  through  which  he 
achieved  the  transformation  of  his  life  by  entering  the  community  of  the 
Truth-winners  and  embracing  all  fellow  beings  in  the  same  communion. 
The  actual  community  of  the  Buddhists,  or  Buddhist  Church,  was  a mani- 
festation and  realization  of  the  ideal  communion  grasped  in  Buddha’s 
spiritual  illumination.  And  here  the  question  arises:  What  was  the  source 
of  the  artistic  inspiration  which  Buddhism  developed  so  opulently.^  In 
other  words:  Was  Buddha  himself  an  artist,  or  had  Buddhism  any  inherent 

• A.  .1.  Edmunds,  Buddhist  and  Christian  Gospels,  vol.  i,  pp.  aaS-aG. 

* This  is  a very  important  point  in  Buddhist  faith,  which  many  W'estern  scholars  fail  to  grasp.  Later 
on  we  shall  see  a development  of  this  idea  in  the  identification  of  Buddha’s  person  with  cosmic  life. 
Compare  Edmunds,  op.  cit.,  vol.  ii,  p.  83. 


6 


I.  BUDDHISM  AND  ITS  ART 


tendency  to  express  itself  in  art?  Our  answer  is  affirmative,  with  a certain 
special  extension  in  the  meaning  of  the  words  “art”  and  “artist.” 
Buddhism  offered  three  sources  of  artistic  inspiration.  The  first  is  the 
conception  of  life  implied  in  Buddha’s  personality  and  proclaimed  by  his 
teachings.  The  second  is  a consequence  of  the  first  and  consists  in  the 
pious  memory  of  the  Master  cherished  among  his  followers.  The  third, 
another  corollary  of  the  first,  is  the  practice  of  dedication  based  on  the 
ideal  of  universal  communion. 

Buddha  was  an  artist,  not,  I dare  say,  in  the  sense  that  he  ever  worked 
with  brush  or  chisel,  but  in  the  sense  that  his  perception  of  life  was 
artistic.  Who  would  deny  that  Christ  was  artistically  inspired,  when  he 
saw  the  glory  of  God  in  the  lilies  of  the  field  Who  would  doubt  the 
indebtedness  of  Giotto  and  Dante  to  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  or  would  hesi- 
tate to  see  in  the  pious  and  beautiful  soul  of  Francis  a living  fountain 
of  artistic  inspiration.!^  Just  in  the  same  way  Buddha,  too,  was  an  artist; 
because  he  perceived  in  man  and  in  nature  the  vital  and  sympathetic 
tie  which  bound  them  to  his  own  soul.  Every  thing  and  every  fellow 
being  is  embraced  in  his  spiritual  life,  and  thus  enters  into  an  ulti- 
mate connection  with  his  ideal.  Nothing  is  left  outside  the  bounds  of 
his  sympathy;  all  is  vivified  by  the  touch  of  personal  relation.  This  is 
the  process  of  idealization,  the  secret  of  artistic  creation;  and  Buddha 
grasped  this  secret  in  his  conception  of  universal  communion  and  through 
his  training  in  the  transformed  life.  A metaphoric  description  of  this 
artistic  sympathy  is  best  given  by  the  simile  of  plants  in  the  “Lotus  of 
Truth.” 

Similarly  based  on  a broad  sympathy  is  the  fourfold  “infinite  emanci- 
pation or  expansion  of  mind.”  ^ This  expansion  of  mind  implies  a practice 
of  meditation  in  love,  compassion,  joy  and  equanimity,  by  means  of  which 
the  practitioner’s  consciousness  is  extended  and  embraces  ideally  all  fellow 
beings  in  an  infinitely  expanded  vision.  Indeed,  Buddha  was  a man  of  vi- 

' For  descriptions  of  the  method  and  its  results,  see  Rhys  Davids,  The  Dialogues  of  the  Buddha,  vol.  i, 
pp.  3i7-i8. 


BEGINNING  OF  BUDDHIST  ABT 


7 


sion  in  the  best  sense,  and  it  is  perhaps  beyond  our  power  to  estimate  how 
vividly  he  realized  the  continuity  of  life  through  liis  spiritual  eyes.  I3ut, 
on  the  other  hand,  Buddhism  is  by  no  means  a religion  of  mere  ecstasy. 
Its  meditative  training,  together  with  the  practice  of  charity  in  various 
ways,^  results  in  a total  transformation  of  life  through  the  realization,  first 
in  idea  and  then  in  acts,  of  one’s  spiritual  connection  and  sympathetic 
accord  with  mankind  and  surrounding  nature. 

According  to  Buddhist  view,  the  sphere  of  fellowship  comprises  not  only 
all  living  creatures,  but  also  supernal  beings  high  in  heaven,  and  the  spirits 
inhabiting  nature.  Moreover,  the  strong  impressions  received  by  Buddha 
and  his  followers  from  animals  and  plants  and  the  imposing  landscapes 
of  India,  worked  so  deeply  upon  their  minds  that  their  feeling  toward 
nature  played  an  essential  part  in  their  idea  of  fellowship.  Perhaps  in  no 
other  religion  are  animals  and  flowers  treated  with  such  intimacy  as  in 
Buddhism,  not  only  in  the  way  of  similes,  but  also  in  concrete  manifes- 
tations of  tender  sympathy. ^ It  is  no  wonder  that  Buddha’s  sermons 
and  the  mental  training  of  his  disciples  were  closely  connected  with  the 
love  of  nature,  when  we  consider  that  most  of  their  time  was  spent  in 
the  open,  under  the  pendent  branches  of  banyan  trees,  amidst  the  fragrance 
of  sdla  flowers,  by  the  side  of  flowing  streams  or  bubbling  springs,  or  on 
hills  and  among  rocks.  This  is  the  reason  why  the  expansion  of  conscious- 
ness toward  the  infinite  mind  is,  to  take  one  of  many  instances,  likened 
to  the  all-permeating  pale  moonlight  and  to  a trumpet  sound  reverber- 
ating through  the  profound  serenity  of  a tropical  night.®  In  addition,  we 
must  remember  that  these  and  other  metaphors  were  not  mere  figurative  ex- 
pressions, but  represented  experiences  derived  from  the  natural  grandeur 
or  repose  surrounding  the  scene  of  tranquil  meditation.  In  a word,  the 

1 The  more  usual  are:  giving,  gentle  words,  benevolence  and  common  benefit,  the  necessary  conse- 
quences of  the  Buddhist  conception  of  life. 

^ The  representation  of  animals  and  trees  in  Buddhist  sculpture  will  be  presently  spoken  of.  For  animal 
stories,  see  Bhys  Davids,  The  Buddhist  Birth  Stories;  Jdtaka,  translated  by  various  scholars  and  edited  by 
Cowell,  in  six  volumes.  The  existing  version  of  yEsop’s  Fables  owes  much  to  these  Buddhist  stories;  see 
the  introduction  to  the  above  book  by  Bhys  Davids. 

’ Many  of  the  similes  of  nature  in  Buddha’s  sermons  may  be  found  in  K.  E.  Neumann,  Die  Reden 
Gotamo  Biutdho’s.  Poems  by  early  Buddhists  are  translated  in  Mrs.  Rhys  Davids’  The  Psalms  of  the  Early 
Buddhists;  and  in  K.  E.  Neumann’s  Die  Lieder  der  Mdnchen  und  Nonnen  Gotarno  Buddho's. 


8 I.  BUDDHISM  AND  ITS  ART 

love  of  nature  played  a vital  part  in  the  Buddhist  conception  of  life  and 
its  continuity. 

Thus  the  ideal  communion  of  the  Buddhist  faith  comprised  all  kinds  of 
existences,  actual  and  imaginary,  in  men  and  in  nature.  The  expansion  of 
Buddha’s  spiritual  being,  wrought  by  this  new  conception  of  life,  became 
the  fountain-head  of  an  inexhaustible  inspiration  in  religion  and  morals, 
in  art  and  poetry.  All  that  he  had  once  regarded  as  causes  of  sorrow  and 
signs  of  evanescence  was  transfigured  into  delightful  and  inspiring  testi- 
mony to  his  ideal  fellowship  with  men  and  nature.  This  new  aspect  of  life, 
now  realized  by  the  Master  and  inspired  in  his  followers,  was  expressed  as 
the  gospel  of  the  Ekaydna,  or  all-embracing  Sole  Road,  whose  rule  should 
be  the  universal  fellowship  of  life.  This  Sole  Road  is  the  Pathway  to  Im- 
mortality ^ and  its  final  goal  is  Nirvana,  the  eternal  haven  of  life,  the  realm 
of  spiritual  communion.^  To  recapitulate,  this  ideal  of  the  ultimate  unity 
of  all  existences  is  the  source,  in  Buddha’s  life  and  teaching,  from  which 
Buddhist  art  derived  its  profoundest  and  most  enduring  inspirations. 

Now  we  come  to  the  second  point  in  the  inspiration  of  Buddhist  art. 
The  communion  of  life  was,  for  the  Buddhists,  not  a mere  ideal  vision  but 
an  actual  fact  realized  in  Buddha’s  life,  in  his  conversion  and  in  his  inspi- 
ration. The  Truth-winner  and  Truth-revealer,  the  Master,  was  believed 
by  his  disciples  to  be  a personal  testimony,  an  incarnation,  of  what  he 
preached.  Faith,  not  only  in  the  truth  but  also  in  the  person  of  Buddha, 
was  what  distinguished  Buddhism  preeminently  from  any  of  the  older 
religions  of  India,  and  it  was  this  personal  influence  that  gave  vitality  to 
the  Buddhist  religion  and  its  art.  It  is  quite  natural  that  the  impressions 
given  by  Buddha’s  personality  should  have  been  faithfully  and  piously 
kept  on  record,  together  with  the  vivid  effect  of  fellowship  produced  by 
the  assembly  of  his  followers  united  in  heart  and  in  the  common  ideal. 
How  deeply  his  disciples  were  moved  by  the  dignity  of  the  Master,  when 
he  sat  among  his  hearers  “like  a lion  among  animals,”  and  preached  with 
authority  “like  the  lion’s  roar  ” ! How  respectfully  the  people  met  the  Sage 
of  the  Sakya  clan,  going  through  the  streets,  “like  the  elephant  king,” 

' Pali,  amalam  pa/lam. 

’ 1 lake  these  expressions  from  the  Sarny utla-Nikaya,  chapter  43,  one  of  the  oldest  Buddhist  texts. 


BEGINNING  OF  BUDDHIST  ART 


9 

cakn  and  dignified  at  the  head  of  hundreds  of  followers!^  A monk  poet 
sang: — 

To-day,  at  full  moon,  for  full  purity 
Five  hundred  brethren  are  together  come. 

They  all  have  cut  their  fetters  and  their  bonds; 

Seers  who  are  free  from  re-birth  emd  from  ill. 

And  as  a king  who  ruleth  all  the  world. 

Surrounded  by  his  councillors  of  state, 

Toureth  around  his  empire  everywhere. 

Driving  throughout  the  lands  that  end  in  sea, 


So  him,  who  is  our  victor  in  the  fight. 

The  peerless  Master  of  our  caravan. 

We  followers  attend  and  wait  upon. 

Who  hold  the  triple  lore,  slayers  of  Death. 

All  we  are  sons  of  the  Exalted  One. 

No  sterile  babbler  is  among  us  found. 

I worship  him  who  strikes  down  craving’s  darts. 

I greet  the  offspring  of  the  Sun’s  great  line.^ 

Closely  connected  with  the  ideal  of  communion  and  stimulated  by  the 
personal  remembrance  of  the  Master,  the  idea  and  practice  of  dedication » 
played  a great  part  in  the  religion  and  art  of  Buddhism.  The  whole  cosmos, 
according  to  the  Buddhist  view,  is  a stage  on  which  may  be  realized  that 
fellowship  among  all  living  beings  whereof  the  Buddhist  community, 
united  in  faith  and  practices,  is  an  actual  manifestation.  Spiritual  fellow- 
ship, however,  is  existent  and  attainable  not  only  in  the  visible  community 
but  also  throughout  the  unlimited  extent  of  universal  life.  That  is  to  say, 
each  thought  of  man  is  pulsating  with  the  heart-beat  of  the  cosmic  life, 
and  when  an  individual  acts  and  speaks  he  is  playing  an  integral  part  in 
the  motion  and  expression  of  the  universe.  Therefore  his  deeds  and  inten- 
tions can  never  be  totally  isolated  from  the  lives  of  others,  though  the 
connection  may  sometimes  be  hidden  and  often  unknown  to  the  individual 

‘ The  appearance  of  the  lion  and  the  elephant  in  Buddhist  sculpture  will  be  taken  up  later  in  this 
chapter  and  in  chapter  iii. 

^ Mrs.  Rhys  Davids,  Psalms  of  the  Early  Buddhists,  The  Brelhren,  pp.  4o2-o3. 

’ Sanskrit,  parindmand;  Japanese,  eko. 


10 


I.  BUDDHISM  AND  ITS  ART 


himself.  The  duty  and  joy  of  every  Buddhist,  that  is,  of  every  one  who 
dwells  in  the  all-embracing  Communion  of  Life  with  conviction  thereof, 
must  lie  in  doing  every  deed,  speaking  every  word  and  thinking  every 
thought,  with  the  pious  intention  of  dedicating  his  best  to  the  profit  of  all. 
The  whole  universe  is  the  “Field  of  Merits”  ^ in  which  the  seeds  of  pious 
desire  are  sown  and  the  harvest  of  merit  is  reaped.  Dedication,  in  desire 
and  in  acts,  is  the  means  of  realizing  the  communion  and  extending  it  to 
those  who  are  still  unaware  of  it.  Consecrate  a flower  to  the  tomb  of  one 
dead;  it  is  not  only  an  expression  of  the  spiritual  communion  existing 
between  the  dead  and  the  living,  but  it  may  also  induce  into  the  same 
communion  any  one  who  might  be  impressed  by  the  beauty  of  the  flower 
or  by  the  motive  for  its  dedication.  Any  other  meritorious  action  — such 
as  giving  food,  nursing  the  sick,  building  a temple  — may  be  dedicated  to 
the  Communion  of  Life  and,  perhaps,  result  in  converting  others.  Thus  the 
practice  of  dedication  in  thought  and  deed  has  ever  been  a great  inspiring 
factor  in  the  piety  of  Buddhists  (Plate  II). 

The  new  religion  inaugurated  by  Buddha  asserted  its  influence  upon  the 
moral  life  of  his  disciples  and  also  expressed  its  faith  and  ideals  in  the  forms 
of  architecture  and  sculpture.  The  first  manifestation  of  artistic  activity 
among  the  Buddhists  was  seen  in  the  memorials  built  in  honor  of  the 
relics  of  the  deceased  Master.  After  Buddha’s  death  his  relics  were 
divided  among  the  various  kingdoms  which  had  embraced  his  faith,  and 
each  portion  was  deposited  in  a crystal  pot  filled  with  golden  flowers  and 
enclosed  in  an  iron  casket.  Mounds  (stupa)  or  chapels  (caiiya)  were 
erected  as  repositories  for  these  precious  relics,  and  a little  later  palings 
and  gateways  were  built  around  these  memorials.  In  symbolic  design,  the 
palings  were  intended  to  represent  the  circle  of  the  communion,  and  the 
gateways  stood  for  the  entrance  to  the  Sole  Way  of  salvation.  Ceremonies 
were  performed  about  the  mounds  or  in  the  chapels,  and  processions 
rnarclied  around  the  reliquaries.  These  structures  were  embellished  with 
relief  carvings  which  show  the  earliest  work  of  Buddhist  sculptors.  The 


1 Pali,  puhha-kkhetta;  Sanskrit,  punya-ksetra;  Japeinese,  fuku-den. 


PLATE  II 

A Buddhist  Memorial  Stela 


PLATE  II 


A Buddhist  Memorial  Stela 
Chinese,  dated  554  a.d. 

Owned  by  Hervey  E.  Wetzel,  Esq.,  and  now  deposited  in 
The  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 


The  scenes  depicted  are  based  chiefly  on 
the  Lotus  of  Truth  (see  p.  15  ff.)  and  rep- 
resent various  aspects  of  the  Buddhist 
Communion  of  Saiints.  The  uppermost 
pau-t,  which  is,  unfortunately,  much  broken, 
seems  to  have  illustrated  the  story  told  in 
chapter  xxii  of  the  Lotus,  to  the  effect 
that  the  Bodhisattva  Bhaisajya-raja  (Chin- 
ese, Yao-wang),  after  he  had  been  born 
as  a son  to  King  Vimaladatta,  delivered 
a sermon  to  his  father  and  then  ascended 
to  heaven,  being  mounted  on  a pedestal 
decorated  with  the  seven  kinds  of  jewels. 
We  see  here  in  the  remains  of  an  inscrip- 
tion, a Chinese  ideograph  denoting  “king,” 
above  which  the  name  of  Vimaladatta 
probably  appeared.  The  figure  immediately 
to  the  right  would  thus  be  that  of  the  king, 
and  the  knees  on  a bench-like  pedestal  still 
further  to  the  right  would  belong  to  the 
Bodhisattva. 

The  next  register  below  evidently  repre- 
sents the  meeting  of  the  two  Buddhas, 
Sakya-muni  (Chinese,  Shih-chia)  and  Prab- 
huta-ratna  (Chinese,  To-pao),  in  the 
heavenly  shrine,  as  told  in  chapter  xi  of  the 
Lotus.  The  two  figures  of  Bodhisattva  stand- 
ing beside  the  Buddhas  are  Bhaisajya-raja 
and  Avcdokitesvara  (Chinese,  Kuan  Yin), 
who  are  most  prominently  mentioned  in 
the  Lotus  as  protectors  of  the  Budd- 
hist religion  and  its  believers  in  the 
latter  days  of  the  world.  To  the  left  of 
Bhaisajya-raja  is  a figure  sitting  under  a 
tree;  and  to  the  right  of  Avalokitesvara, 
an  ascetic  sitting  in  a cave.  Of  these 
two  the  former  was  probably  meant  to 
represent  Buddha  in  his  princely  life, 
meditating  in  his  garden;  while  in  the 
latter  he  appears  as  a recluse,  before  his 
attainment  of  Buddhahood. 

The  scene  in  the  third  register  shows 
Buddha  with  his  two  great  disciples,  Anan- 


da  (Chinese,  A-nan)  and  Maha-Kasyapa 
(Chinese,  Chia-yeh),  on  his  left  and  right 
respectively.  On  either  side  of  the  cen- 
tral group,  and  separated  from  it  by  a 
decorative  partition,  is  a group  consisting 
of  a Padma-pani  and  a Vajra-pani,  also 
protectors  of  the  religion.  Below  this  regis- 
ter there  stands  a reliquary  to  which  four 
noblemen,  the  chief  donors  of  the  monu- 
ment, each  accompanied  by  a horse  and 
pages,  come  to  pay  homage. 

The  whole  thing  was  made,  as  the  inscrip- 
tion at  the  bottom  expresses  it,  under  the 
West  Wei  dynasty,  to  dedicate  the  merit 
(of  causing  the  carving  to  be  done)  to  the 
welfare  of  the  country  and  the  people,  espe- 
cially the  ancestors,  parents,  and  friends  of 
the  donors,  who  are  enumerated  to  the 
extent  of  about  two  hundred  men  and 
women.  A remarkable  point  in  the  tech- 
nique is  that  the  Buddhas  and  Buddhist 
figures  are  carved  in  pronounced  relief, 
quite  in  the  style  of  the  carvings  at  Bharhat 
or  Sanchi,  while  the  figures  of  the  Chinese 
noblemen  are  executed  almost  after  the  old 
Chinese  method  of  chiselled  drawing.  The 
other  three  sides  of  the  stone  display  the 
various  but  typified  figures  of  the  donors, 
also  cut  in  the  lowest  possible  relief.  The 
workmanship  of  the  Buddhist  figures  is 
interesting  as  an  example  of  the  Indian  in- 
fluence which  so  affected  the  rise  of  Bud- 
dhist art  in  China,  Korea,  and  Japan  in  the 
sixth  and  seventh  centuries.  The  drapery 
of  the  two  Buddhas  in  the  second  register  is 
especially  striking  as  a combination  of  In- 
dian and  Chinese  influences,  and  it  is  this 
resultant  style  that  found  its  further  devel- 
opment in  the  statues  of  Horyu-ji. 

Compare  also,  E.  Chavannes,  in  T‘oung 
Pao,  vol.  XIV,  no.  2,  pp.  272-80;  and  in  Ars 
Asiatica,  vol.  ii,  pp.  20-29. 


PLATE  III 

Top  of  the  North  Gateway  to  the  Great  Stupa  at  Sanchi,  India,  seen 

FROM  WITHIN 


PLATE  III 


Top  of  the  North  Gateway  to  the  Great  Stupa 
AT  Sanchi,  India,  seen  from  within 

Reproduced  from  Burgess’s  “The  Ancient  Monuments,  Temples, 
and  Sculptures  of  India" 

Carved  in  relief,  in  the  middle  of  the  uppermost  cross- 
piece, is  the  Bodhi  tree,  to  which  elephants  are  paying  hom- 
age; and,  at  the  intersection  with  the  uprights,  are  winged, 
antelope-like  animals  unknown  to  Buddhist  legend. 

On  the  middle  cross-piece,  the  hosts  of  the  Evil  Ones  (San- 
skrit, Mara)  are  threatening  the  prince,  who  is  shown  seated 
a little  to  the  left  of  the  centre,  and  still  fiather  to  the  left  are 
a man,  his  wife  and  child,  and  the  Bodhi  tree.  The  birds  on 
the  terminals  are  peacocks  (Sanskrit,  maurya;  Pali,  moriya) 
representing  the  dynasty  of  King  Asoka. 

On  the  lower  cross-piece  is  a scene,  beginning  at  the  left 
termined,  which  shows  a palace  surrounded  by  terraces  and 
towers,  a horseman,  — probably  intended  for  the  Buddha  in 
his  princely  estate,  — a procession,  a forest,  a village,  a her- 
mitage in  front  of  which  a sacrificial  fire  burns,  and  finally, 
on  the  right  terminal,  a number  of  people  and  animals  in 
another  pairt  of  the  forest. 


BEGINNING  OF  BUDDHIST  ABT 


1 1 

oldest  of  such  sculptures  are,  perhaps,  the  palings  of  Bharhat  ^ (fourth  cen- 
tury B.c.?),  and  the  progress  of  the  glyptic  art  in  the  third  century  b.c., 
during  the  reign  of  King  Asoka,  can  be  traced  in  the  carved  palings  of 
Buddha-Gay  a and  Sanchi.^  Another  treatment  of  sculpture  is  shown  in 
the  lions  and  elephants  on  top  of  the  commemorative  pillars  which  were 
erected  by  the  king  at  places  associated  with  important  events  in  Buddha’s 
life. 

Now  these  carvings  represent,  for  the  most  part,  assemblies  of  b('licvers 
before  the  Master.  Such  assemblies  were,  as  I have  said,  a concrete  mani- 
festation of  the  Buddhist  ideal  of  spiritual  communion,  and  the  fact  that 
the  early  Buddhist  sculptors  worked  on  this  subject  shows  the  inspiring 
effect  of  the  ideal  upon  their  artistic  genius.  In  the  centre  of  the  assembly 
there  is  always  a symbolic  representation  of  Buddha’s  person,  such  as  the 
holy  wheel  (cakra)  symbolizing  the  eternal  truth  revealed  by  him,  or  a 
vacant  seat  on  which  he  used  to  sit,  or  the  Bodhi  tree  under  which  he 
attained  Buddhahood.  Indeed  the  person  of  Buddha  was  too  sacred  and 
sublime  to  be  represented,  by  the  early  Buddhist  artists,  as  a human  figure.^ 
On  the  other  hand,  the  believers  who  are  paying  homage  to  the  central 
figure  are  shown  as  living  beings:  men  and  women  bringing  garlands,  angels 
hovering  in  the  sky  and  perhaps  singing  in  Buddha’s  praise,  and  animals 
sharing  the  communion  and  offering  flowers.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  ele- 
phants play  the  most  prominent  part  among  these  animals,  and  also  that 
lions  are  seated  on  the  beams  of  the  gateways.  Flowers,  too,  are  lavishly 
represented,  generally  in  decorative  medallions  on  the  palings;  and  in  this 
connection  one  may  well  recall  Buddha’s  vision  of  lotus  flowers  symbol- 
izing various  conditions  of  mankind.  So  far  I have  spoken  with  reference 
chiefly  to  the  carvings  at  Sanchi  (Plate  III).  Other  scenes,  however,  sug- 
gested by  the  stories  of  Buddha’s  past  existences  in  animal  form,  or  by  vari- 
ous incidents  of  his  human  life,  are  executed  on  the  j)alings  and  columns  of 
Bharhat,  — all  without  human  figures  of  Buddha.  But  though  the  sculp- 
ture of  Bharhat  has  no  characteristic  other  than  charming  naivete,  that  of 
Sanchi  shows  a great  advance  in  delicate  finish  and  compound  groujiing. 

’ Now  floposited  in  the  India  Muspuin,  Calcutta.  ^ Near  Bhopal. 

’ He  i.s,  however,  freely  re{)re.senled  as  a young  prince,  i.  e.,  before  he  attained  to  Buddhahood. 


12 


I.  BUDDHISM  AND  ITS  ART 


While  glyptic  representation  of  the  Buddhist  faith  was  gaining  ground 
among  Indian  Buddhists,  the  artistic  genius  of  the  Greeks  came  into  play, 
and  not  only  contributed  to  the  refinement  of  the  art  but  also  elfecti'd  a 
significant  change.  The  Greeks  left  behind  by  Alexander’s  expedition  had 
established  a kingdom  in  the  northwest  of  India.  In  due  course  many  of 
them  were  converted  to  Buddhism  and  worked  out  the  newly  embraced 
beliefs  in  sculpture.  They  took,  it  is  true,  the  same  subjects  as  their  Indian 
brothers,  representing  the  life  of  Buddha,  or  assemblies  of  the  communion 
before  the  Master;  but  the  Greek  ideal  of  personal  beauty  could  not  long 
fail  of  application  to  the  person  of  the  revered  Perfect  Being.  Buddha,  the 
“hero  of  the  Solar  Race,”  the  “Light  of  the  World  which  dispelled  the 
darkness  of  illusion,”  was  represented  by  the  Graeco-Indian  artists  in  all 
the  beauty  of  an  Apollo.  The  symbolic  wheel  was  transferred  to  the  deco- 
ration of  his  chair,  and  in  the  vacant  seat  was  an  Apollo  Musagetes,  with 
bright  eyes  and  waving  hair.  The  human  beings  paying  homage  to  the 
central  figure  were  clothed  in  Indian  robes,  but  the  celestial  lords,  Brahma 
and  Indra,  were  represented  like  Zeus  and  Achilles  (Plate  IV,  A & B). 
Needless  to  say,  such  influences  contributed  greatly  to  the  enrichment  of 
Buddhist  sculpture ; and  the  most  significant  innovation  — the  one  destined 
to  become  a permanent  factor  in  Buddhist  art  — was  undoubtedly  the 
actual  representation  of  the  person  of  Buddha  himself.  Whether  the 
anthropomorphic  figures  of  Buddha  are  the  product  solely  of  Greek  genius, 
is  still  a difficult  and  far-reaching  historical  question  whose  discussion 
would  lead  me  beyond  the  scope  of  my  present  subject.  Suffice  it  to  point 
out  that  the  Buddhist  statues  of  southern  India  can  hardly  be  designated 
as  the  outcome  of  Greek  influence;  and  that,  moreover,  even  in  the  sculp- 
ture of  Northern  Buddhism,  in  Central  Asia,  China,  Korea,  and  Japan, 
there  seem  to  have  been  two  schools  of  sculptural  art,  one  of  which  is 
decidedly  Greek,  while  the  other  is  not. 

There  are  also  various  interesting  points  which  might  be  mentioned  in 
connection  with  the  origins  of  Buddhist  painting  and  temple  building;  but 
we  must  leave  these  out  of  consideration  here,  because,  in  the  present  state 
of  knowledge,  they  pertain  rather  to  archaeology  than  to  art  history.  After 


PLATE  IV  (A  & B) 

(Iandhara  Sculptures 


PLATE  IV  (A  & B) 

Gandhara  Sculptures 
Second  Century,  a.  d. 

In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

A.  Nirvana:  the  dying  Buddha  surrounded  by  his  follow- 
ers. On  the  left,  close  to  the  figure  of  Buddha,  stands  Indra, 
holding  his  symbolic  thunderbolt  in  his  left  hand.  On  the 
right  is  a monastic  disciple,  probably  Ananda,  and  in  the 
background  is  a group  of  lay  men  and  women. 

B.  The  Temptations  : Buddha,  with  Seduction  on  his 
right  and  Violence  on  his  left. 


B 


MAHAY  AN  A,  THE  BROADER  COMMUNION 


i3 


all  we  can  be  pretty  sure  that  early  Riiddliist  painting  treated  similar  sub- 
jects in  a style  analogous  to  that  of  the  relief  carvings,  and  that  in  the 
course  of  time  the  temples  were  built  more  and  more  as  places  of  assend)ly 
and  worship.  We  cannot  doubt  the  inspiring  effect  of  Ruddhist  ideals  ui)on 
these  branches  of  art,  which  found  their  way  wherever  the  religion  was 
propagated.  The  beginning  of  the  Buddhist  religion  in  a small  community 
of  Buddha’s  disciples,  the  rise  of  Buddhist  sculpture  after  his  death,  the 
rapid  development  of  Buddhist  art  partly  through  the  contribution  of  the 
Greeks,  the  spread  of  the  religion  together  with  its  art  to  China  and  Japan, 
— these  steps  will  remain  forever  a marvel  of  human  achievement  inspired 
by  the  zeal  of  faith.  Herein  we  can  discern  the  subtle  but  close  connection 
between  religious  faith  and  artistic  inspiration ; and  the  connection  becomes 
more  manifest  and  vital  in  the  developed  form  of  Buddhism  known  as  the 
Mahayana,  the  Greater  Vehicle  or  Broader  Communion,^  which  we  are 
now  about  to  consider. 


From  the  very  beginning,  it  was  the  belief  of  Buddhists  that  their  com- 
munion included  all  things  visible  and  invisible.  They  imagined  the  pres- 
ence of  heavenly  hosts  in  the  congregation  of  believers;  the  Mahd-samaya, 
or  Great  Assembly,  as  it  is  called,  was  believed  to  embrace  all  celestial 
beings;  and  to  them  are  ascribed  various  songs,  of  which  the  following 
may  serve  as  an  example;  — 

Groat  is  tho  gathering  in  the  glade! 

The  hosts  of  heaven  together  met! 

We  too  are  come  unto  this  congress  blest, 

And  fain  would  see  the  Company  Invincible. 

The  brethren  there,  wrought  up 
To  concentration  rapt,  make  straight  their  hearts. 

Wisely,  as  driver  keeping  grip  on  rein. 

Their  faculties  they  guard. 

' It  is  called  the  Greater  in  contrast  to  the  Lesser  Vehicle  (Hlnayana),  not  to  the  original  Buddhism, 
as  is  often  wrongly  supposed.  The  books  of  the  Broader  Communion  seem  to  have  taken  their  present 
forms  during  centuries  in  the  pre-Christian  era,  and  are  preserved  in  abundance  in  Nepal,  China,  Tibet, 
and  Japan.  Compare  D.  Suzuki,  Outlines  of  Mahayana  Buddhism. 


I.  BUDDHISM  AND  ITS  ART 


i4 

Who  in  the  Buddha  refuge  take, 

They  shall  not  go  to  woeful  doom. 

When  they  put  off  this  human  frame 
They  shall  fdl  up  the  hosts  in  heaven.^ 

This  idea  of  extension  is  elaborated  in  painting  as  well  as  in  poetry,  and 
zealous  faney  plays  a great  role  in  broadening  the  communion  of  the  saints. 
Buddha  occupies,  as  a matter  of  course,  the  central  position  in  tlie  extended 
community,  surrounded  by  men  and  gods  in  the  midst  of  terrestrial  beauty 
and  heavenly  glories.^  Beside  the  celestial  deities  who  descended  from  tlie 
height  of  the  Brahmanic  pantheon,  there  appear  the  supernal,  semi- 
human  beings  called  Bodhisattva,  or  Beings  of  Enlightenment,  and  also 
various  spiritual  manifestations  of  Buddha  himself.  The  Bodhisattva  are 
considered  in  the  mythology  to  be  those  who  are  striving  for  a full  realiza- 
tion of  the  universal  communion  of  Buddhist  ideals  by  taking  vows  to 
practice  great  virtues  and  to  persuade  others  to  the  same  morality.  They 
are  represented  in  art  as  beautiful  human  figures,  with  bright  eyes,  rosy 
cheeks,  and  long,  waving  hair.  On  their  heads  are  golden  crowns;  their 
breasts  and  arms  are  decorated  with  garlands;  and  fine  veils  float  down- 
ward from  their  shoulders.  They  surround  Buddha  and  add  to  the  glories 
of  the  assemblage. 

The  Greater  Vehicle  has  its  metaphysics  and  moral  theories,  but  these  I 
must  leave  out  of  consideration.  As  a development  of  beliefs  on  the  lines 
of  poetic  imagination,  — a further  pursuance  of  the  broadening  commun- 
ion and  of  the  aspiration  for  its  realization  in  various  directions,  — the 
Mahdydna  was  a tremendous  force  to  inspire  the  artistic  sense  of  the 
Buddhists  and,  in  return,  was  largely  influenced  by  that  sense.  Books 
setting  forth  the  ideas  and  faith  of  this  branch  of  Buddhism  are  written  in 
flowery  style,  with  high  flights  of  imagination,  allegories,  similes,  parables, 
visions,  and  apocalyptic  scenes.  They  are,  to  leave  untouched  the  meta- 
physical doctrines  preached  in  them,  descriptions  in  words  of  the  pic- 

' Rhys  Davids,  The  Dialogues  of  the  Buddha,  vol.  ii,  pp.  284-85. 

2 This  glorification  of  Buddha  in  a mythical  way  is  closely  connected  with  the  metaphysical  conception 
of  his  person  as  identified  with  the  ultimate  entity  of  Truth  (Dharmatd).  This  conception  may  best  be 
compared  to  the  identification  of  Christ  with  the  Logos  in  the  Johannine  Gospel. 


PLATE  V 


Detail  from  the  Wall-Paintings  in  the  Golden  Hall  of  11oryu-ji 


PLATE  V 


Detail  from  the  Wall-Paintings  in  the  Golden  Hall 
OF  Horyu-ji 

Japanese,  Wado  Period,  circa  a.d.  710 

This  particular  group  occupies  a position  immediately  to 
the  left  of  the  figure  of  Buddha,  whose  knee  and  elbow  may 
be  seen  at  the  extreme  right  of  the  picture.  The  close  simi- 
larity of  this  art  to  that  of  the  T‘  ang  period  in  China  is  very 
striking.  Compare  Plate  VI. 

Painted  in  colors. 


MAHAYANA,  THE  BROADER  COMMUNION  i5 

lures  representing  the  glorious  assembly  of  celestial  and  human  beings 
around  Buddha,  and  they  served  to  stimulate  afresh  the  expression  in 
color  and  form  of  the  scenes  they  described.  For  this  reason,  })icliires 
representing  the  vast  community  of  the  Buddhist  faith  in  a res})Iendenl 
combination  of  figures  are  called  mandala,  or  cycles  delineating  what  is 
described  in  the  books. 

To  illustrate  painting  of  this  kind,  I take  first  the  mural  decorations  in 
the  Golden  Hall  of  H5ryu-ji  ^ (Plate  V),  dating  from  the  early  eighth  cen- 
tury. The  principal  pictures  represent  the  various  paradises,  the  so-called 
Buddha-lands,  in  which  the  respective  Buddhas  reside  as  the  lords  who  re- 
ceive the  believers  into  their  realms.  The  whole  scene  is  full  of  resplendent 
colors;  the  clouds,  flowers,  celestial  beings  and  human  beings  illuminated  by 
the  rays  emitted  from  Buddha’s  body.  The  central  figure,  the  Lord  Buddha, 
is  seated  in  a dignified  posture  immersed  in  deep  contemplation,  or  blessing 
men  and  inducing  them  into  his  communion.  The  saints  standing  in  front, 
including  deities,  Bodhisatlva  and  monastic  disciples,  join  their  hands  in 
adoration  of  the  Lord.  Their  faces  are  full  of  the  expression  of  jfiety,  and 
their  postures  show  that  they  are  united  in  heart  with  the  Lord  and  with 
their  fellows.  The  glorious  colors  are  now  somewhat  faded,  but  the  origi- 
nal conception  and  composition  are  splendidly  preserved,  and  the  tender 
expression  of  lines  and  curves  testifies  to  the  high  achievement  of  the  artist. 

These  representations  of  the  Buddha-lands  on  the  walls  of  H5ryu-ji 
illustrate  the  scenes  as  they  are  described  in  various  books;  and  in  order  to 
understand  the  intention  and  scheme  of  similar  pictures  it  is  desirable  to 
know  the  written  descriptions,  just  as  it  is  convenient  to  refer  to  the  pic- 
tures in  order  to  appreciate  fully  the  style  of  the  books.  For  this  purpose 
I take  here  the  most  important  of  the  Mahdydna  scriptures,  the  “Lotus  of 
the  Perfect  Truth,”  or  Sad-dharma-piindarika.'^  The  lotus  is  a symbol  of 
purity  and  perfection  because  it  grows  out  of  mud  but  is  not  defiled,  — 
just  as  Buddha  is  born  into  the  world  but  lives  above  the  world;  and 
because  its  fruits  are  said  to  be  ripe  when  the  flower  blooms,  — just  as 

’ A monastery  near  Nara,  Japan,  built  a.d.  598-^07. 

* Japanese,  Ilokke-kyo.  E.  Biirnoiif's  French  translation  is  entitled  Le  Loins  dn  la  Bonne  Ijti.  See  also 
the  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  vol.  21, 


i6 


I.  BUDDHISM  AND  ITS  ART 


the  truth  preached  by  Buddha  bears  immediately  the  fruit  of  enlighten- 
ment. Buddha,  according  to  the  Lotus,  is  Lord  of  the  world,  the  Fatlier  ol' 
all  beings,  the  Master  of  all  the  enlightened,  and  his  personality  is  identical 
with  the  eternal  Truth  which  manifests  itself  as  the  phenomena  of  tlie 
visible  universe.  He  is  as  well  the  ultimate  source  of  our  existence  and  of 
all  our  thoughts  and  ideas.  This  eternal  Lord  has  appeared  among  men  as 
a human  being  for  the  sole  purpose  of  realizing  the  spiritual  lotus  of  truth 
in  the  lives  of  all  sentient  beings,  and  to  this  end  he  teaches  them  and 
brings  them  to  maturity  in  accordance  with  their  respective  needs  and 
capabilities.  Just  as  one  and  the  same  water  of  rain  nourishes  innumerable 
plants  and  grasses  enabling  each  of  them  to  develop  its  characteristic  fea- 
tures, so  the  same  truth  revealed  by  Buddha  makes  the  lotus  flower  of 
every  man’s  spirit  bloom  and  bear  the  fruits  of  moral  life  in  the  communion 
of  enlightened  souls. 

In  order  further  to  insure  the  progress  of  his  saving  and  enlightening 
work,  Buddha  manifests  a vision  of  a heavenly  shrine  in  which  the  eternal 
Truth  is  deposited,  and  summons  all  his  disciples  to  adore  the  stupa  and  to 
take  the  vow  of  allegiance  to  the  Truth.  The  scene  of  this  apocalyjhic 
vision  is  peopled  also  by  hosts  of  innumerable  saints  who  come  out  of 
fissures  in  the  earth  and  sing  in  unison  their  adoration  of  Buddha  and  of 
his  teachings.  They  take  a solemn  oath  to  observe  the  Master’s  precepts 
and  to  perpetuate  his  religion  by  modelling  their  lives  on  those  of  the  saints 
who  care  for  the  spiritual  welfare  of  all.  The  narrations  reach  their  climax 
when  Buddha  reveals  the  real  entity  of  his  eternal  life  and  promises  to 
appear  before  those  who  will  lead  lives  of  sanctity,  and  to  realize,  in  the 
communion  of  saints,  the  Kingdom  of  Buddha  on  earth.  In  short  this  book 
represents  the  highest  flight  of  Buddhist  idealism  and  the  most  eager 
aspiration  for  the  realization  of  the  all-embracing  Sole  Road. 

It  is  no  wonder  that  the  Lotus  of  Truth,  a grand  religious  poem  in  itself, 
gave  great  impetus  to  Buddhist  art  and  poetry.  The  apparition  of  the 
heavenly  shrine,  the  hosts  of  the  sanctified  adoring  Buddha,  the  stories  of 
miracles  wrought  by  saints  in  the  name  of  salvation,  — these  and  other 
topics  were  painted  ceaselessly  in  a variety  of  scenes  and  compositions. 


PLATE  VI 

The  Hokke  Mandala 


PLATE  VI 


The  Hokk6  Mandala 
Artist  unknown 

Chinese,  Middle  Ninth  Century 
In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

An  inscription  on  the  back  of  the  painting  says:  “The 
chief  mandala  of  the  Hokke-do.  This  maridala  is  a repre- 
sentation of  the  sacred  mountain,  auid  is  a real  product  of 
India.  And  whereas  the  parts  below  the  seat  of  Sakya  had  all 
been  destroyed,  owing,  perhaps,  to  natural  decay,  or  to  muti- 
lation by  people  (for  relics) , and  the  picture  having  passed 
through  unknown  ages  in  that  state,  now  therefore,  in  March, 
the  4th  year  of  Kyuan  (ii48),  we  have  allowed  Chinkei,  Iko- 
Daihdshi  (clerical  title),  a monk  of  this  temple  to  repair  it. 
This  is  because  of  his  skill  in  painting  which  he  has  inherited 
from  his  ancestors.  We  inscribe  these  particulars  in  order 
that  posterity  may  not  be  misled.  Kanshin,  Betto-Honmu 
(Director  of  Temple  Affairs),  Gon-Dai-s6j5  (Junior  Arch- 
bishop).” Kanshin  (io84-ii53)  held  office  at  Todai-ji,  the 
temple  to  which  the  Hokke-d5  belonged. 

The  picture,  an  important  example  of  T‘ang  painting, 
shows  to  a marked  degree  the  Indian  influence  which  was 
predominant  in  China  during  the  seventh,  eighth  and  ninth 
centuries,  and  in  this  respect  may  be  compared  with  the 
paintings  more  recently  found  at  Tun-huang.  It  is  also  a 
most  interesting  illustration  of  the  landscape  style  developed 
by  artists  of  the  T‘ang  dynasty. 

Painted  in  colors  on  silk  and  mounted  as  a panel. 


PLATE  VII 


Kwannon  as  the  ]\Ierciful  All-Mother.  By  Kano  IIogai 


PLATE  VII 


Kwannon  as  the  Merciful  All-Mother 
By  Kano  H5gai  {died  1888) 

Japanese,  Kano  School 
In  the  Imperial  Art  School,  Tokyo 

The  deity  is  shown  here  as  Hibo  Kwannon,  the  Compas- 
sionate Mother. 


! 


MAHAYANA,  THE  BROADER  COMMUNION 


17 

Among  the  Bodhisattva  or  saints  mentioned  in  this  book,  the  most  popu- 
lar is  Kwannon,^  who  is  worshipped  as  the  goddess  of  mercy.  Taking  the 
plastic  representations  of  this  deity  alone,  a long  history  of  art  may  be 
written.  But  I must  here  confine  myself  to  two  pictures,  one  representing 
the  opening  scenes  of  the  book  and  the  other  Kwannon. 

The  first  one,  the  Hokke  Mandala  (Plate  VI),  is  an  old  Chinese  painting, 
probably  of  the  middle  ninth  century,  and  represents  Buddha  immersed 
in  deep  contemplation  just  before  he  revealed  the  whole  truth  of  the 
Lotus  (Hokke).  The  scene  is  the  Vulture  Peak,  one  of  his  favorite  resorts 
trees  grow  on  the  mountain-side,  some  of  them  flowering  in  white  or  red. 
The  left  side  of  the  picture  opens  in  a gorge  stretching  far  into  the  distance. 
Buddha,  wearing  red  robes,  is  seated  in  the  centre  in  the  posture  of  con- 
templation, and  several  saints  sit  beside  him  as  representatives  of  the 
human  and  celestial  beings  who  adore  him.  The  utmost  tranquillity  pre- 
vails throughout  the  landscape,  and  the  figures  are  in  dignified  composure; 
but  it  is  implied  that  marvels  are  soon  to  take  place  and  that  in  the  light  of 
the  coming  revelation  the  whole  scene  is  to  be  transfigured  into  one  of 
resplendent  glory.  Looking  upon  this  picture  we  can  imagine  with  what 
ardor  the  artist  must  have  painted,  and  what  an  amount  of  piety  and 
enthusiasm  his  work  must  have  inspired  while  it  hung,  during  more  than  a 
thousand  years,  on  the  walls  of  the  Hokke-d5.®  The  picture,  even  apart 
from  its  suggestions  and  implications,  is  a great  achievement  of  artistic 
genius  in  the  grandeur  of  its  composition,  the  dignity  of  the  figures,  and 
the  harmonious  combination  of  colors. 

The  second  example  (Plate  VII)  is  a modern  Japanese  painting,  the  chief 
work  of  the  unique  genius  of  Kano  Hdgai.^  The  work  was  finished  soon 
before  his  death  and  he  had  no  time  to  add  his  signature,  as  if  his  life  ended 
when  its  labor  was  accomplished.  The  picture  is  preserved,  together  with 
his  numerous  preliminary  sketches  and  previous  attempts,  in  the  Art 

* Sanskrit,  Avalokite^vara;  Chinese,  Kuan  Yin.  Concerninf;  this  deity,  see  further  chapters  in  and  iv. 

* \mong  the  followers  of  the  Lotus  of  Truth,  the  name  Vulture  Peak  always  suggests  a paradise, 
because  Buddha  declares  in  the  book  that  the  place  where  he  or  his  faithful  disciples  live  and  preach  the 
Truth  is  the  indestructible  Land  of  Treasures. 

* Of  this  temple,  near  the  Central  Cathedral  in  Nara,  I shall  speak  in  the  second  chapter. 

* Died  1888. 


i8 


I.  BUDDHISM  AND  ITS  ART 


School  of  T6ky5.  His  conception  was  the  inexhaustible  love  of  Kwannon, 
the  Mother  of  All,  who  is  sending  her  offspring  from  the  realm  of  ligiit  and 
purity  down  to  the  world  of  sorrows  and  tribulations.  She  stands  in  the 
midst  of  golden  illumination  and  resplendent  clouds.  Her  left  hand  carries 
a tiny  branch  of  willow,  a symbol  of  meekness,  and  from  the  flask  held  in 
her  right  hand  falls  a drop  of  water,  the  water  of  wisdom,  wliich  forms  a 
transparent  globe  containing  a baby.  The  child  looks  back  in  gratitude  or 
in  farewell  towards  the  mother  above,  his  lovely  hands  joined  in  adoration. 
The  place  where  the  baby  is  destined  to  be  born  is  the  world  of  dark  clouds 
among  which  rugged  peaks  are  seen.  The  love  of  the  mother,  a virgin 
mother  of  heavenly  dignity,  is  a pure  maternal  love,  but  it  exhibits  a depth 
of  tragic  compassion.  She  knows  the  toils  her  baby  is  going  to  encounter 
in  the  world  below,  but  she  is  resolute  in  sending  him  there  and  sure  that 
he  will  confront  heroically  the  troubles  of  human  life,  and  carry  among 
mankind  the  love  and  wisdom  of  his  mother  by  emulating  the  spirit  of 
Buddha’s  saints. 

Whether  the  heavenly  light  can  penetrate  the  realm  of  dark  clouds, 
whether  the  baby  can  perform  his  mission  among  the  rugged  precipices  and 
rocks  of  life,  are  questions  which  may  arise  in  the  minds  of  those  who  look 
at  the  picture.  But  the  artist  was  sure  that  the  miracle  is  being  accom- 
plished even  now  and  by  ourselves;  for  the  assurance  given  by  Buddha  as 
to  the  future  of  his  religion  is  not  vain,  if  we  in  our  lives  follow  the  love  and 
wisdom  of  our  Mother  in  Heaven. 


II 


THE  BUDDHIST  IDEAL  OF  COMMUNION  IN  JAPANESE  ART 

The  Buddhist  gospel  of  an  all-embracing  spiritual  communion  which 
could  be  realized  in  human  life,  was  preached  to  the  East  and  West,  imbu- 
ing its  converts  everywhere  with  an  aspiration  for  universal  communion. 
Peoples  whose  mental  gaze  had  reached  hardly  beyond  tribal  or  national 
limits  were  taught  that  individual  life  should  be  regarded  as  inseparable 
from  communal  life,  that  man’s  true  happiness  should  be  sought,  not  in 
the  fulfilment  of  selfish  ambitions,  but  in  fellowship  with  all  celestial  and 
terrestrial  existences.  These  teachings,  formulated  in  doctrines,  practised 
in  conduct  and  expressed  in  art,  exercised  a great  influence  also  upon  the 
political  ideals  of  nations,  by  convincing  government  leaders  that  the  state 
should  be  not  merely  a political  organization  of  might  and  right,  but  an 
institution  for  the  advancement  of  spiritual  harmony  and  moral  edifica- 
tion among  the  people  as  a unified  body.  Let  me,  however,  omit  any  further 
account  of  these  developments  on  the  continent  of  Asia,  and  pass  at  once 
to  Japan,  where  the  influence  of  Buddhist  ideals  was  so  conspicuously 
shown  in  the  close  connection  between  religious  faith,  state  organization 
and  artistic  achievement. 

It  was  in  538  a.d.^  that  Buddhism  made  its  official  entrance  into  Japan 
through  a message  presented  to  the  Japanese  Court  by  the  King  of 
Pekche,^  a principality  of  Korea.  The  message  said:  “This  teaching 
(dharma)  is  the  most  excellent  of  all  teachings;  it  brings  endless  and 
immeasurable  blessings  to  all  believers,  even  unto  attainment  of  the 
Enlightenment  (Bodhi)  without  comparison.  Moreover,  it  has  come  to 
Korea  from  far-off  India,  and  the  peoples  of  the  countries  lying  between 
are  now  zealous  followers  of  it  and  none  is  outside  the  pale.”  These  words, 
accompanied  by  Buddhist  scriptures,  a fine  statue  and  other  exquisite 
works  of  art,  were,  to  many,  a marvellous  revelation,  seeming  to  come  as  if 


The  date  usually  given  is  552. 


^ Japanese,  Kudara. 


20 


II.  THE  BUDDHIST  IDEAL  OF  COMMUNION 


in  response  to  the  necessity  for  a religion  which  could  give  the  people  some 
higher  ideal  than  the  worship  of  local  gods. 

At  this  time  the  government  was  endeavoring  to  achieve  a measure  of 
centralization,  and  among  the  leaders  of  this  movement  the  new  religion 
secured  many  advocates.  But  it  was  not  until  the  end  of  the  century, 
under  the  nominal  reign  of  the  Empress  Suiko,  that  Buddhism,  after  years 
of  varying  fortune,  found  in  the  person  of  the  Prince-Regent  Shotoku  — 
the  Holy  Virtuous  — a thinker  and  statesman  who  fully  grasped  the  ideal 
of  spiritual  communion.  His  regency  (5q3-622)  marked  an  epoch  in  the 
rise  of  Japanese  civilization.  In  his  “Constitution,”  issued  in  Go4,  he  pro- 
claimed, as  fundamental  principles,  that  harmony  should  be  the  basis  of 
state  organization,  and  that  faith  in  the  Three  Treasures  of  the  Buddhist 
religion^  should  be  the  foundation  of  national  and  individual  life.  Besides 
effecting  these  far-reaching  political  reforms,  he  established  numerous 
temples  which  became  the  centres  of  learning,  artistic  activity,  music  and 
charity,  and  in  all  these  undertakings  his  ambition,  as  organizer  and 
patron,  was  to  foster  the  Buddhist  ideal  of  universal  communion  in  daily 
practice,  and  thus  to  realize  a true  union  of  state  and  religion.  He  himself 
was  a philosopher  of  keen  insight  as  well  as  a devout  Buddhist  of  profound 
piety,  and  we  may  be  sure  that  his  religious  politics  were  not  a mere 
expedient,  nor  his  artistic  taste  a mere  aestheticism.  As  a far-sighted  states- 
man he  worked  for  the  nation’s  unity  and  welfare  in  both  its  secular  and 
spiritual  aspects,  seeking  expression  for  the  aim  of  state  organization  in 
the  achievements  of  Buddhist  institutions  and  in  the  promotion  of  Bud- 
dhist art.  Without  his  guidance  Buddhism  could  never  have  become  so 
rapidly  the  vital  factor  of  national  life,  and  without  his  inspiring  patronage 
Buddhist  art  could  hardly  have  flourished  so  successfully  among  his 
countrymen.  It  is,  therefore,  quite  natural  that  he  is,  even  now,  revered 
as  the  founder  of  Buddhism  in  Japan  and  also  as  the  patron  saint  of 
artists.^ 

The  most  conspicuous  manifestation  of  the  Prince’s  ideal  may  be  seen 

* See  above,  page  5. 

2 In  the  Art  School  of  Tokyo  there  is  a shrine  dedicated  to  him,  and  the  artists  celebrate  every  year  the 
anniversary  of  his  death,  the  twenty-second  of  February. 


PRINCE  SHOTOKU  AND  HIS  WORK 


21 


in  Ruddhist  architecture.  The  temple  of  his  time  was  a composite  of 
many  buildings.  The  principal  edifice  was  the  Golden  Hall;  about  it 
stood  a meeting-hall,  two  meditation  halls  for  summer  and  winter  re- 
spectively, a drum-tower,  a bell-tower  and  one  or  two  five-storied 
pagodas.  A long  gallery  enclosed  all  these,  and  in  the  southern  side  of 
the  gallery  stood  prominently  a two-storied  gateway.  This  general  plan 
symbolized  the  communion  of  saints  EU’ound  the  central  Buddha,  and 
the  effect  was  imposing.^  Within  the  Golden  Hall  was  a platform  or  dais, 
about  four  feet  high,  representing  the  cosmos.  In  the  centre  of  this  plat- 
form stood  a statue  of  Buddha  together  with  statues  of  his  attendants, 
and  its  corners  were  guarded  by  the  four  Guardian  Kings,  protectors  of 
the  religion  and  its  believers.  Pillars  supported  a complicated  overhead 
structure  in  which  were  empanelled  groups  of  angels  holding  various 
musical  instruments  in  their  hands  and  hovering  among  clouds.  The  sur- 
rounding walls  were  frescoed  with  pictures  of  Buddha’s  paradise  and  of 
liis  saints;  and  the  ceiling,  painted  in  various  designs,  was  hung  with 
pendants  of  silk  or  of  decorated  metal  plaques  intended  to  suggest  the 
glories  of  heaven.  Worship  was  performed  in  front  of  the  central  statue, 
and  processions  marched  around  the  platform  or  along  the  gallery  to  the 
accompaniment  of  music. 

These  temples,  however,  were  places  not  only  of  worship  but  also  of 
learning,  where  philosophy  and  music  were  taught,  and  moral  discipline 
was  inculcated.  Aloreover,  charitable  institutions,  such  as  hospitals, 
infirmaries,  and  dispensaries,  were  attached  to  them,  as  means  of  putting 
the  Buddhist  ideal  of  universal  love  into  actual  practice.  The  whole  foun- 
dation thus  served  as  a focus  of  the  Buddhist  religion,  morality  and  art 
which  now  became  integral  parts  of  the  national  life. 

Among  many  temples  founded  by  Prince  Shdtoku  a few  remain  in  the 
original  edifices,  while  others,  rebuilt  after  fires,  preserve  only  the  original 

* Professor  Edward  S.  Morse,  in  his  Japanese  Homes  and  their  Surroundings  (New  York,  i885),  says 
(p.  46):  “There  is  something  truly  majestic  in  the  appearance  of  the  broad  and  massive  temples,  with  the 
grand  upward  sweep  of  their  heavily-tiled  roofs  and  deep-shaded  eaves,  with  intricate  maze  of  supports 
and  carvings  beneath;  the  whole  sustained  on  colossal  round  posts  locked  and  tied  together  by  equally 
massive  timbers.”  To  this  remark  I may  add  that  in  the  architecture  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries 
the  combined  effect  of  the  group  of  buildings  as  described  above  played  a greater  part  than  in  any  of  the 
following  periods. 


22 


II.  THE  BUDDHIST  IDEAL  OF  COMMUNION 


plans.  Of  these  two  classes,  H6ryu-ji,  near  Nara,  and  Tenno-ji,  in  Osaka, 
may  be  taken  as  respective  examples.  The  former  (Plate  VHI  A)  has  stood 
since  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century.  It  was  built  for  a college  of 
Buddhist  philosophy,  and  is,  in  regard  to  both  architecture  and  contents, 
the  most  precious  relic  of  early  Buddhist  art.  The  latter,  which  has  passed 
through  alternate  periods  of  decay  and  renovation,  is  essentially  the  same, 
in  design  and  in  the  varied  uses  of  its  buildings,  as  the  type  already  de- 
scribed, but  the  purpose  of  the  foundation  is  worthy  of  special  notice. 
Although  the  temple  now  stands  on  a hillside  far  from  the  sea,  it  was  origi- 
nally situated  on  the  water-front  of  the  port  leading  to  the  capital  of  that 
time.  This  site  was  chosen  by  the  Prince,  in  order  that  foreign  envoys  and 
missionaries  might  be  welcomed,  at  their  landing,  through  the  gateway  of 
Buddhist  communion  into  the  sanctuary  of  worship.  We  of  to-day, 
familiar  with  the  bustle  of  a modern  customs  service,  may  at  least  try  to 
imagine  how  these  travellers  of  long  ago,  after  their  tedious  sea  journey, 
stepped  into  the  Land  of  Sunrise,  and,  accompanied  by  processions  and 
music,  were  ushered  into  the  group  of  beautiful  edifices.  Surely  this  foun- 
dation alone  amply  testifies  to  the  high  ideals  of  the  Prince  and  to  the 
grandeur  of  his  achievement. 

The  seventh  century  was  a period  of  rapid  advance  in  Japanese  civiliza- 
tion. National  unity  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  a firm  Imperial 
regime,  and  Buddhism  manifested  its  vigor  in  moral,  social  and  artistic 
activities.  This  progress  culminated  in  the  glory  of  the  era  of  Tempyd 
(729-749),  or  Heavenly  Peace,  in  which  the  ideal  of  a true  union  between 
Church  and  State  reached  its  mature  expression ; and  art,  especially  archi- 
tecture and  sculpture,  became  more  a manifestation  of  national  impulse 
than  a product  of  individual  initiative.  Buddhism  worked  for  the  benefit 
of  the  state,  for  the  security  of  the  Throne,  for  the  weal  of  the  people ; and 
the  state,  in  turn,  was  dedicated  to  the  Buddhist  cause,  that  is,  to  a reali- 
zation of  the  ideal  communion  in  and  through  the  actual  life  of  the  nation. 
Government,  court  nobles  and  people  alike  contributed  to  the  religion  and 
its  art.  Each  household  had  its  family  sanctuary,  every  province  built  its 


PLATE  VIII  (A  & B) 

(A)  The  Golden  Hall,  Gateway,  and  Pagoda  of  Horyu- 


(B)  West  Front  of  the  Hokke-do  of  T5dai-ji,  Nara 


PLATE  VIII  (A  & B) 


A.  The  Golden  Hall,  Gateway  and  Pagoda  of  Horyu-ji 
Seen  from  the  Meeting  Hall,  looking  South 

The  temple  is  known  to  have  been  founded  early  in  the 
seventh  century,  6o6-6i3,  but  there  is  stiU  some  disagreement 
as  to  whether  the  present  buildings  date  from  that  time  or  are 
reconstructions  erected  after  a fire  which  occurred  in  G70. 
Most  architects  believe  the  existing  structures  to  be  the  origi- 
nals, though  the  four  carved  pillars  supporting  the  upper  roof 
of  the  Golden  Hall  were  added  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
and  the  shed  roofs  protecting  the  lower  parts  of  the  Golden 
Hall  and  of  the  Pagoda  are  also  later  additions. 


B.  West  Front  of  the  Hokke-do  of  T6dai-ji,  Nara 

Founded  as  the  Konsh5-ji  in  783,  but  later  (circa  762) 
absorbed  by  the  great  monastery  of  Todai-ji,  and  thereafter 
known  as  the  Hokke-do.  The  present  asymmetry  of  the  roof 
is  due  to  the  addition  of  the  haU  of  devotion  in  the  Kamakura 
period,  and  the  whole  edifice  has  been  recently  repaired. 


H 


PLATE  IX  (A  & B) 

Two  OF  THE  Four  Guardian  Kings 


PLATE  IX  (A  & B) 

Two  OF  THE  Four  Guardian  Kings 
Japanese,  Eighth  Century 
In  the  Kaidan-in  of  Todai-ji,  Nara 

A.  Komoku-ten  (Sanskrit,  Virupaksa),  the  Far-Gazer, 
Guardian  of  the  West. 

B.  Zoch5-ten  (Sanskrit,  Ff>iid/?a/ja),  the  Lord  of  Growth, 
Guardian  of  the  South. 

The  other  two  Guardian  Kings  are;  Jikoku-ten  (Sanskrit, 
Dhrtarasjra),  the  Land-Bearer,  Guardian  of  the  East,  and 
Tamon-ten  (Sanskrit,  Vaisravana),  the  Well-Famed,  Guar- 
dian of  the  North. 


V 


li 


THE  ART  OF  TEMPYO 


23 


own  Cathedral,  and  in  the  capital,  at  Nara,  a Central  Cathedral 
was  erected  (743-752),  the  consummate  expression  of  the  splendor  of 
Tempyd. 

This  Cathedral,  known  as  T5dai-ji,  was  dedicated  to  the  Buddha 
Vairochana,^  or  “Illuminator,”  whose  colossal  bronze  statue  occupies  the 
central  position.  Originally  there  were  two  seven-storied  pagodas  in  front 
of  the  main  building,  which  was  further  surrounded  by  many  smaller 
temples  and  shrines,  dedicated  to  various  saints  and  each  containing  a 
cosmic  platform  adorned  with  numerous  statues  massed  around  a central 
figure.  Fortunately  one  of  these  minor  edifices,  the  Hokke-do  (Plate  VIII B) , 
in  which  the  Hokke  Mandala  of  this  Museum  was  deposited,  stands 
almost  intact;  and  another,  the  Kaidan-in,  or  sanctuary  for  initiation  into 
Buddhist  mystery,  is  preserved  in  its  original  plan.  The  group  of  these 
larger  and  smaller  buildings,  situated  on  the  gentle  slope  of  the  Kasuga 
hills  and  surrounded  by  giant  trees,  exhibits  a synthetic  beauty  of  art  and 
nature  designed  to  embody  the  glory  of  the  Kingdom  of  Buddha,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  symbolize  the  monarchic  constitution  of  the  state  sup- 
ported by  unity  of  religious  faith  and  moral  ideals. 

Thus  the  sculpture  and  architecture  of  Tempyo,  neither  of  which  has 
ever  been  excelled  in  grandeur  and  perfection  by  later  ages,  were  integral 
parts  of  Buddhism;  but  it  is  in  sculpture  — in  the  expression  of  individual- 
ity and  in  the  composition  of  groups  — that  the  power  of  Buddhist  inspira- 
tion is  most  clearly  shown.  The  group  in  Buddhist  sculpture  is  not,  how- 
ever, an  inseparable  composition  as  in  Greek  art,  but  simply  an  array  of 
single  statues  enclosed  within  the  railings  of  the  cosmic  platform,  the 
whole  representing  an  assembly  of  the  saints  around  the  Universal  Lord. 
\ arious  qualities  and  attributes  are  manifest  in  the  dignified  postures  and 
vivid  expressions  of  the  individual  figures,  while  their  joint  adoration  of 
Buddha  is  brought  out  by  the  grouping;  and  to  this  must  be  added  the 
imposing  magnitude  of  the  statues,  of  which  the  smallest  is  not  less  than 
life-size.  Here,  in  the  sculpture  of  Tempyo,  we  discern  the  final  result  of 
the  union  of  Buddhist  ideals  with  Greek  genius;  and  here,  too,  the  tangible 

* So  called  in  Sanskrit;  in  Japanese,  Birushana  or  Rushana. 


24 


II.  THE  BUDDHIST  IDEAL  OF  COMMUNION 


embodiment  of  Buddhist  teachings  attained  its  perfection  in  the  liappiest 
harmony  of  idealistic  conception  and  realistic  execution. 

The  great  bronze  Buddha  of  T5dai-ji  is  over  sixty  feet  high  including  the 
lotus  pedestal.  Its  head  and  right  shoulder  were  destroyed  in  repeated  fires 
and  replaced  by  rather  poor  substitutes,  but  in  the  lower  part  of  the  body 
and  especially  in  the  lotus  pedestal  we  can  see  the  beauty  and  grandeur  of 
the  original.  Buddha  is  seated  in  the  dignified  posture  in  which  he  preaches 
the  cosmic  truths  ceaselessly  and  eternally.  Behind  him  rises  an  aureola  of 
overlapping  double  circles  composed  of  resplendent  flames  in  wliicli  nu- 
merous apparitions  of  Buddhahood  are  seen,  and  beneath  him  is  a gigantic 
lotus  seat  symbolizing  the  cosmos.  The  petals  of  this  huge  flower 
represent  various  countries,  and  on  each  of  them  are  engraved  figures  of 
saints  and  angels  who  have  come  together  there  to  adore  the  Buddlia, 
Lord  of  the  Universe,  and  to  propagate  the  truth  among  people  of  all  lands 
and  times.  Their  attitudes,  robes,  crowns  and  emblems  indicate  their 
respective  virtues  as  well  as  the  various  missions  they  are  destined  to  fulfil 
for  the  sake  of  men.  In  short,  the  whole  statue,  like  the  temple  of  which  it 
forms  the  central  feature,  is  a representation  of  the  cosmic  spirit  and  a 
visible  embodiment  of  the  communion  of  all  beings  enlightened  by 
Buddha’s  wisdom. 

More  realistic  and  more  specialized  in  motive  are  the  life-size  figures  of 
the  four  Guardian  Kings  which  stand  at  the  corners  of  the  cosmic  platform 
in  the  Kaidan-in,  or  Hall  of  Initiation.  The  two  reproduced  in  Plate  IX  (A 
& B)  may,  perhaps,  sufficiently  illustrate  the  characteristic  qualities  of  these 
four  statues,  whose  expressions  are  similar  though  their  postures  differ. 
They  stand  — each  on  the  prostrate  body  of  an  evil  demon  — alert  and 
ready  to  ward  off  all  vices  and  wickedness  which  might  threaten  the  men 
of  faith  and  the  countries  where  righteousness  prevails.  One  grasps  a 
sword ; another  a spear ; another  upholds  a shrine,  the  repository  of  truth ; 
and  in  the  powerful  muscular  tension  of  face,  body  and  limbs,  the  invinci- 
ble will  and  tireless  energy  of  each  are  vigorously  portrayed. 

Quite  different  in  feeling  are  two  heroic  statues  which  stand  beside  the 
central  Buddha  on  the  cosmic  platform  of  the  Hokke-do,  a chapel  dedicated 


THE  ART  OF  TEMPYO 


23 


to  the  propagation  of  the  True  Law.  These  figures  represent  two  celestial 
lords,  Indra,  ruler  of  kings  and  warriors,  and  Brahma,  king  of  the  heavenly 
hosts,  the  highest  deities  of  the  Hindu  pantheon,  who  are  said  to  have  come 
down  from  their  abodes  in  heaven  and  paid  homage  to  Buddha  by  partici- 
pating in  the  assembly  of  his  followers.  One  of  them,  Brahma,^  is  repro- 
duced in  Plate  X,  and  the  point  to  be  noted  is  the  realistic  execution  of  the 
sculpture.  It  is  ruled  by  no  convention.  The  figure  is  simply  a human 
being  of  perfect  proportions,  wearing  robes  and  a headdress  such  as  might 
have  been  worn  by  the  nobility  of  India  or  China;  yet  the  dignified  pres- 
ence and  the  noble  face  are  evidence  enough  that  the  man  here  represented 
must  be  a heavenly  or  kingly  person.  His  gesture  is  a simple  joining  of 
hands;  yet  no  one  can  mistake  the  intention  of  that  gesture  or  fail  to  see 
the  devotion  of  heart  expressed  in  his  attitude.  Here  a god  is  made  man; 
and  this  was  not  a mere  flight  of  imagination  but  a typical  representation 
of  the  faith  of  that  time.  Indeed  these  two  statues  were  made  after  the 
model  — in  spirit,  though  not  in  form  — of  the  Emperor  Shomu  who 
erected  the  Central  Cathedral.  The  Sovereign  of  that  time,  who  was 
believed  to  be  almost  a divine  being,  paid  homage  to  the  personal  repre- 
sentative of  the  cosmic  truth,  and  this  was  the  inspiration  from  which 
the  artist  ^ derived  his  conception  of  the  statues. 

In  the  year  749,  on  the  occasion  of  a thanksgiving,  the  Emperor, 
Empress-consort  and  Crown  Princess,  attended  by  hundreds  and  thou- 
sands of  the  court  nobles,  ladies,  retainers  and  priests,  proceeded  from  the 
palace  to  the  Central  Cathedral,  where  services  were  held,  and  the  Sover- 
eign bowed  before  the  Great  Buddha,  declaring  himself  to  be  the  servant 
of  the  Three  Treasures.  This  was,  perhaps,  the  most  magnificent  religious 
observance  which  has  ever  taken  place  in  Japan,^  and  it  is  easy  to  imagine 
what  a solemn  grandeur  of  ceremony  must  have  been  possible  in  the 
presence  of  these  statues,  amid  the  elaborate  surroundings  of  a gigantic 

* Japanese,  Bonlen.  ^ Probably  the  Abbot  Roben,  Advisor  to  the  Emperor. 

’ What  remains  of  the  apparatus  and  instruments  used  on  that  occasion  is  preserved  at  Nara  in  the 
Imperial  Magazine,  called  Sh6s5-in,  close  to  the  Cathedral.  Among  the  treasures  stored  there  is  a marble 
relief  in  Byzantine  style  and  a picture  of  a lady  in  old  Persian  robes,  showing  the  contact  of  Japan 
with  the  world  through  Buddhism.  All  of  the  treasures  are  reproduced  and  described  in  Toyei-slmko, 
T5ky5,  1908. 


20 


II.  THE  BUDDHIST  IDEAL  OF  COMMUNION 


temple;  for  Buddhist  rituals  are  gorgeous  with  candlelight,  incense, 
flowers,  music,  processions  and  litanies,  all  artistically  combined.  But,  in 
any  case,  the  full  significance  of  Buddhist  art  cannot  be  appreciated  apart 
from  the  rituals.  A statue,  however  beautiful  in  itself,  if  seated  desolate,  or 
crowded  among  others  in  a museum,  is  only  a caput  mortuum  of  an  organic 
body;^  and  a temple  thrown  open  to  the  curiosity  of  visitors  is  but  a de- 
serted house  devoid  of  life.  The  real  beauty  of  a Gothic  cathedral  cannot 
be  entirely  dissociated  from  incense,  lights  and  church  music;  nor  is  it 
otherwise  with  Buddhist  architecture  and  sculpture.  They  help  to  com- 
plete a synthesis  of  beauty  corresponding  to  the  ideal  of  universal  com- 
munion. 

Now,  leaving  the  eighth  century  and  the  glory  of  Tempyd  art,  let  us 
pass  over  the  next  two  hundred  years  and  take  up  another  manifestation 
of  the  ideal  of  communion  which  first  appeared  in  Japan  during  the  tenth 
century.  Union  of  state  and  religion  and  the  manifestation  thereof  in  art 
had,  meanwhile,  continued  to  develop,  although  in  the  ninth  century  a 
new  turn  was  given  by  the  importation  from  China  of  the  Shingon  sect  of 
Buddhism,  with  which  I shall  deal  in  the  next  chapter.  The  tenth  century 
was  a period  in  which  the  corruption  of  the  priesthood  began  to  evince 
itself,  but  beneath  such  developments  at  the  surface  there  was  streaming 
already  an  undercurrent  of  faith  in  Amita,^  the  Buddha  of  Infinite  Life 
and  Light,  whose  story  is  told  in  one  of  the  Mahayana  books,  — the 
Sukhdvati-vyuhd,  or  “Description  of  the  Land  of  Bliss.”  This  Buddha  is 
believed  to  have  taken  a vow  to  save  all  beings  and  to  prepare  for  them, 
far  in  the  West,  a paradise,  realized  by  him  through  long  training  and  the 
accumulation  of  innumerable  merits,  whither  any  one  who  believes  in  his 
mercy  and  invokes  his  name  shall  be  taken,  even  from  this  life,  — there 
to  participate  in  the  communion  of  the  Saints.  This  new  phase  in  the 
development  of  Buddhist  faith  was  a religion  of  personal  devotion  and 

* The  architectural  design  and  the  grouping  of  statues  in  Gallery  no.  5 of  the  Department  of  Chinese 
and  Japanese  Art  are  intended  to  lessen  the  inherent  defects  of  Museum  exhibition. 

^ So  in  Sanskrit,  the  full  name  being  Amitdbha,  “Infinite  Light,”  or  Amildyus,  “Infinite  Life.”  In 
Japan  the  name  is  commonly  pronounced  Amida. 


PLATE  X 

Brahma,  King  of  the  Heavenly  Hosts 


V 


PLATE  X 


Brahma,  King  of  the  Heavenly  Hosts 
Japanese,  Eighth  Century 
In  the  Hokke-do  of  Todai-ji,  Nara 

Dry  lacquer  sculpture. 


AMITA-BUDDHISM  AND  ITS  ART 


27 


salvation  by  mercy,  and  was  cherished  by  pious  monks  in  the  course  of  the 
tenth  century.  Toward  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century  it  had  come  to  the 
front,  and  its  full  rise  may  be  dated  in  the  second  half  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, since  which  time  it  has  continued  to  be  the  most  influential  factor  of 
Japanese  Buddhism. 

Belief  in  a merciful  Deity  and  his  paradise  has  always  acted  as  a powerful 
incentive  to  artistic  expression.  Thus  the  Buddha  Amita,  of  illumined 
body,  sitting  with  his  saints  in  the  midst  of  celestial  trees  and  flowers,  or 
appearing  in  visions  to  the  pious,  or  coming,  attended  by  the  heavenly 
hosts,  to  receive  the  dying;  and  the  bliss  of  those  who  were  reborn  in  his 
realms  and  now  adore  the  merciful  Lord  from  their  seats  in  the  resplendent 
lotus  flowers,^  — these  scenes  furnished  splendid  materials  to  the  activity 
of  artists.  Here  the  conception  of  spiritual  communion  was  not  essentially 
different  from  that  of  former  ages,  but  the  personal  appearance  of 
Buddha  and  concrete  descriptions  of  his  paradise  became  more  commonly 
the  themes  of  painting,  with  freer  composition  and  more  variegated  color- 
ing. It  is  also  to  be  noticed  that  the  Japanese  genius  worked,  in  these  pic- 
tures, to  soften  the  curves,  to  refine  the  colors,  and  to  make  the  facial 
expression  of  the  figures  more  human  and  tender. 

The  most  precious  specimens  of  this  category  are  the  mural  decorations 
in  the  Phoenix  Hall  of  By6d5-in  near  Kyoto,  and  two  triptychs  sometimes 
attributed  to  Eshin.^  The  Phoenix  Hall,  a chapel  of  a nobleman,  was  fin- 
ished in  io53,  and  the  paintings  on  the  walls  and  door-wings  were  executed 
by  Tamenari,  a master  of  the  Takuma  school..  One  of  them  represents 
Amita  Buddha  seated  amid  the  saints  and  glories  of  his  paradise.  Illumin- 
ing rays  emanate  from  his  eyes  and  extend  downward  to  a building  which 
is,  perhaps,  meant  to  be  the  palace  of  the  noble  who  dedicated  the  chapel 
to  the  Buddha  Amita.  Unfortunately  the  painting  is  much  defaced,  but 
it  still  retains  something  of  its  original  splendor  of  color  and  composition. 

The  two  triptychs  are  said  to  be  the  work  of  Eshin,  a learned  and  pious 
monk,  who  described  in  a book  the  miseries  of  inferior  births  and  the 
glories  of  the  Land  of  Bliss.  In  the  verbal  delineation  of  those  visionary 

* For  these  descriptions,  see.  the  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  vol.  part  ii,  pp.  91-98. 

^ Genshin,  better  known  as  Eshin  or  the  Abbot  of  Eshin  monastery  ((9.42-1017). 


28 


II.  THE  BUDDHIST  IDEAL  OF  COMMUNION 


scenes  liis  talent  may  be  compared  with  that  of  Dante;  but  he  was,  in 
addition,  a great  master  of  painting,  so  rich  in  colors,  quiet  in  tone,  free  in 
composition  and  soaring  in  conception,  that  he  may  be  called  tlie  Fra 
Angelico  of  Japan.  One  of  these  works  here  reproduced  (Plate  XI)  shows 
the  Buddha  Amita  coming  to  receive  a believer.  The  dignity  of  the  central 
figure,  the  variety  in  posture  of  the  saints  playing  on  musical  instruments, 
the  softness  of  the  variegated  clouds,  and  the  charming  glimpse  of  a land- 
scape below,  display  most  inspiringly  his  artistic  genius  and  religious 
fervor.  The  other  Amita  picture  (Plate  I,  Frontispiece)  represents 
Buddha  accompanied  by  two  attendant  Bodhisattva,^  appearing  over  a 
hill  range.  The  contrast  between  the  golden  radiance  of  the  three  heav- 
enly persons  and  the  fresh  green  of  hills  and  trees;  the  harmony  of  the 
divine  composure  with  the  serenity  of  nature,  suggestive  of  the  mercy  of 
Buddha  pervading  the  light  of  a tranquil  morning,  — these  are  expres- 
sions of  the  monk’s  inspired  vision.  A hymn  of  the  same  century  sings:  — 

Ah!  pity ’t  is,  we  cannot  see  the  Buddha  face  to  face. 

Though  He  is  present  always,  everywhere. 

And  yet,  perchance,  as  in  a vision.  He  will  come  to  us 
In  the  Ccdm  morning  hour,  when  no  man  stirs. 

Such  visions  Eshin  was  the  first  to  paint,  and  he  did  it  with  the  breadth 
and  dexterity  of  a master. 

Throughout  the  eleventh,  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  this  gentle 
and  beautiful  art  kept  pace  with  the  spread  of  Amita  worship.  Vigor  gave 
place  to  meekness,  sweet  harmony  became  more  conspicuous  than  virile 
inspiration,  and  the  artists  worked  in  ecstasies  of  tender  piety  and  self- 
forgetting  devotion.  The  results  are  seen  in  the  majestic  serenity  of  the 
Great  Buddha  of  Kamakura  (Plate  XII),  in  the  charming  statues  of 
Amita  and  his  attendants  (Plate  XHI),  and  in  many  delicate  pictures  in 
this  Museum. 

Another,  but  contemporary,  manifestation  of  this  faith  is  apparent  in 
the  long  scroll-paintings  which  are  so  closely  connected  with  the  genre 

1 Kwannon  (Sanskrit,  AvalokiteSvara)  and  Seishi  (Sanskrit,  Mahd-Slhdnaprdpta). 


PLATE  XI 


Amita  Buddha  and  Twenty-five  Bodhisattva.  By  Eshin  Sozu  (Jenshin 


PLATE  XI 


Amita  Buddha  and  twenty-five  Bodhisattva 
By  Eshin  Sozu  Genshin 
Japanese,  942-1017 

Owned  by  Koyasan  Monastery, 
and  now  deposited  in  the  Imperiat  Museum,  Tokyo 

The  Buddha  and  his  attendants  are  shown  welcoming  the 
souls  of  the  faithful  to  Paradise. 


PLATE  XII 

The  Great  Amita  Buddha  at  Kamakura 


PLATE  XII 


The  Great  Amita  Buddha  at  Kamakura 
Japanese,  Middle  Thirteenth  Century 

Bronze  casting. 


v-f?)  T 'T  M 


PLATE  XIII 


The  Amita  Triad 


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THE  medit:val  genre  painting 


29 


painting  of  the  period.  The  touches  of  landscape  in  Eshin’s  pictures  and 
the  scenes^  of  transmigration  described  in  his  writings,  were  significant. 
The  changes  in  Buddhist  art  begun  by  the  pious  monk  heralded  a gradual 
deviation  from  the  iconographic  rules  exemplilied  in  Buddhist  ligures 
brought  over  from  Asia,^  and  this  process  was  accelerated  by  the  combined 
influence  of  the  nature-mysticism  associated  with  Amita-Buddhisrn  and 
the  pictorial  representation  of  various  events  associated  with  the  life  his- 
tories of  religious  leaders.  The  result  was  a religiously  inspired  genre 
painting  which  became  a prominent  factor  of  Japanese  Buddhist  art  in  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries.  Scenes  such  as  the  appearance  of  the 
Buddha  Amita  before  some  pious  man,  the  falling  of  heavenly  flowers  on 
the  occasion  of  a virtuous  monk’s  sermon,  or  a pathetic  conversion  among 
the  court  ladies,  were  represented ; and  side  by  side  with  the  bliss  of  para- 
dise, the  miseries  of  the  doomed  or  of  ghostly  existences  were  depicted. 
In  paintings  of  this  kind  the  activities  of  human  life,  together  with  their 
backgrounds  of  houses  and  gardens,  hills  and  trees,  were  regarded  simply 
as  one  aspect  of  the  whole  realm  of  transmigration,  — a stage  in  spiritual 
communion,  a scene  of  the  manifestation  of  Buddha’s  mercy. 

This  brief  description  may  serve  to  show  in  what  sense  Eshin  was  the 
pioneer  of  both  the  religion  and  the  art  of  the  thirteenth  century.  But  a 
great  distinction  between  his  work  and  its  subsequent  development  con- 
sists in  the  later  practice  of  using  long,  horizontal  scrolls,  on  which  the 
scenes  were  delineated  in  series.  This  is  only  a difference  in  technique, 
but  it  had  a w ide  bearing  in  modifying  the  use  of  the  pictures.  A painting 
of  Buddha  and  his  saints,  whether  on  a vertical,  hanging  scroll  ® or  on  a 
panel,  was  intended  primarily  for  more  or  less  general  worshij);  while  the 
pictures  executed  on  horizontal  scrolls  ^ served  better  the  ends  of  privacy 
and  narration.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  altar  piece  gave  way  entirely 
to  the  long  scroll,  nor  that  the  genre  painters  worked  with  less  |)iety  than 

* Actually  depicted  in  paintings  attributed  to  Kose  no  Ilirotaka,  a contemporary  of  Eshin.  The  pic- 
tures are  in  Haiko-ji,  near  Otsu. 

- See  chapter  iii.  ^ Japanese,  kakemono. 

* Japanese,  makimono.  IVrhaps  an  intermediate  stage  in  the  transition  from  kakemono  to  rnakirnono 
is  representerl  by  the  pictures  of  the  resorts  of  transmigration,  attributed  to  Hirotaka.  They  are  in  the 
form  of  kakemono,  but  the  scenes  are  arranged  in  horizontal  registers. 


3o 


II.  THE  BUDDHIST  IDEAL  OF  COMMUNION 


the  painters  of  altar  pieces.  In  many  cases  one  and  the  same  artist  worked 
on  both  kinds  of  painting  and  the  illustrations  of  the  saints’  lives  were 
respected  almost  to  the  point  of  worship.  Yet  this  change  in  treatment  was 
destined  to  promote  the  infiltration  of  secular  motives  and  the  mediaeval 
religious  genre  became  the  forerunner  of  the  modern  genre  of  totally  jiro- 
fane  intention.  After  all,  the  freedom  of  composition,  the  softly  graded 
color  range  and  the  diversity  of  scenes  which  characterize  the  rise  of  tlie 
Buddhist  genre,  were  all  concomitant  with  the  popularization  of  religious 
teachings  in  the  thirteenth  century  and  after. 

Viewed  by  such  light  as  I have  been  able  to  shed  on  the  subject,  it  is 
clear  that  the  beauty  of  Buddhist  art  was,  for  the  most  part,  founded  on 
the  ideal  of  spiritual  communion,  whether  in  this  world  or  in  a heavenly 
realm.  This  ideal  it  was  that  gave  to  Buddhism  the  power  of  expansion 
beyond  the  boundaries  of  nations,  fired  its  adherents  with  missioneu’y  zeal, 
and  inspired  the  imagination  of  its  artists  and  poets.  One  who  can  appre- 
ciate this  ideal  will  understand  Buddhist  art,  and  will  discover  in  the  hearts 
of  the  Japanese  a tone  of  tenderness  and  a depth  of  sympathy  which  are 
the  essential  conditions  of  artistic  creation  and  enjoyment. 


Ill 


BUDDHIST  COSMOTHEISM  AND  THE  SYMBOLISM  OF  ITS  ART 

Having  seen  how  the  Buddhist  ideal  of  communion  developed  in  various 
special  directions  and  gave  rise  to  corresponding  manifestations  in  art, 
let  us  now  turn  back  to  the  ninth  century  and  examine  a form  of  Buddhism 
which  found  expression  in  an  extremely  comprehensive  and  striking  combi- 
nation of  spiritual  ideals  and  material  embodiment,  of  speculative  thought 
and  mystic  ritual,  and  in  a union  of  the  Buddhist,  Hindu,  Persian,  Chinese 
and  Japanese  pantheons  into  one  cycle  centred  in  Buddha.  The  Japanese 
name  of  this  Buddhism  is  Shingon,^  or  the  True  Word,  and  it  may  be 
designated  as  a synthetic  or  symbolic  Buddhism.  It  views  the  universe 
as  a cosmotheism,  or,  more  explicitly,  it  defines  the  total  cosmos  as  Divin- 
ity, whereof  particular  features  may,  for  certain  purposes,  be  assembled 
under  the  forms  of  separate  deities ; and  its  art  was  an  attempt  to  represent 
these  innumerable  deities,  saints,  demons,  angels  and  other  ultra-human 
beings  embodying  the  inexhaustible  beauties,  powers,  activities  and  mys- 
teries, by  means  of  pictures,  statues,  symbols  and  rites.  In  entering  upon 
this  subject  we  must  — as  if  about  to  traverse  a lofty  mountain  pass  — 
be  prepared  to  go  among  mists  and  clouds,  to  encounter  ravines  and 
glaciers;  we  shall  meet  superb  figures  and  beautiful  scenery,  but  also  awe- 
inspiring sights  and  forms  which  excite  terror. 

The  ideal  of  spiritual  communion  extended,  as  I have  already  indicated, 
not  only  to  the  celestial  and  animal  existences  but  even  further  to  the 
demoniac  and  non -sentient  beings,  and  was  destined  to  culminate  in  a 
world-view,  according  to  which  the  universe  is  comprised  in  the  Buddhist 
communion  and  constitutes  the  real  entity  of  Buddhahood.  Buddha  is  the 
perfect  person  who  attained  the  life  of  all-embracing  wisdom  and  love, 
thus  identifying  himself  with  the  cosmos  and  all  the  lives  in  it.  The  final 
substratum  of  Buddhahood  is,  therefore,  the  cosmos,  including  its  spiritual 


* Sanskrit,  Mantra ; Chinese,  Chen-yen. 


32 


III.  BUDDHIST  COSMOTHEISM 


and  material  aspects,  and  Buddha  is  the  Lord  who  rules  it,  not  from  above, 
but  from  within.  His  spirit  is  the  cosmic  soul  which,  like  a seed,  evolves 
out  of  itself  all  the  phenomena  of  the  universe.  The  cosmic  life  thus 
regarded  as  the  enactment  of  the  infinite  communion  ruled  by  Buddha, 
the  Cosmic  Soul,  may  be  and  must  be  grasped  and  experienced  by  tlie  soul 
which  lives  the  life  not  of  an  individual  but  of  the  whole  communion;  and 
this  soul,  when  it  transcends  the  limit  of  selfish  narrowness  and  individu- 
ality, can  include  all  existences  within  its  domain,  and  discover  in  itself  the 
germs  of  all  phenomena.  This  means  also  an  expansion  of  individual  life 
to  the  compass  of  the  universe,  by  living  in  communion  and  particifiation 
with  the  cosmic  life.  The  absorption  of  self  into  the  world  amounts  to  an 
identification  of  the  microcosmos  with  the  macrocosmos. 

This  belief,  formulated  in  general  terms,  is  the  fundamental  ideal  com- 
mon to  nearly  all  branches  of  Buddhism;  and  though  Japanese  Buddhism 
of  the  eighth  century  laid  special  emphasis  on  the  union  of  the  religious 
ideal  with  state  organization,  it  was  at  bottom  a cosmotheism  and  idealism 
of  the  same  sort.  The  distinguishing  feature  of  Shingon  Buddhism  was  its 
embodiment  of  this  cosmotheism  in  concrete  forms  and  tangible  mani- 
festations. Sweeping  over  Central  Asia  and  China,  and  later  reaching 
Japan  at  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century,  it  succeeded  in  absorbing 
the  pantheons  of  these  different  peoples  into  its  cosmotheistic  domain  and 
in  uniting  them  with  the  central  conception  of  a cosmic  Lord,  the  Great 
Illuminator  (Sanskrit,  Mahd-Vairochana ; Japanese,  Dai-nichi),  a former 
title  of  Buddha  which  was  now  specified  as  a distinct  personality. 

According  to  the  tenets  of  this  school,  Buddha,  the  Cosmic  Lord,  is  not 
a mere  spirit.  His  body  is  the  whole  of  material  existence,  and  even  a grain 
of  dust  partakes  of  his  spiritual  life  and  owes  its  existence  to  him.  The 
world  is  a living  organism,  manifesting  its  life  everywhere  and  endeavoring 
to  attain  full  self-consciousness  in  every  particle,  — a view  which  Gustav 
Theodor  Fechner  taught  in  his  “Zend-Avesta,”  one  thousand  years  later. 
Moreover,  just  as  we  men  live  and  act  by  the  functions  of  thought,  speech, 
and  bodily  motion,  so  the  world  and  its  components  are  living  by  these 
threefold  activities.  To  use  modern  phrases,  the  energy  of  the  cosmos  is 


SHINGON  BUDDHISM 


33 


the  world’s  thought,  every  sound  is  its  speech,  and  every  movement  its 
bodily  action.  These  activities  are  not  merely  external  motions  of  the 
material  world,  but  are  growths  out  of  a deeper  foundation  of  life  and  arc 
controlled  by  spiritual  forces.  Such  inner  meanings  of  the  world’s  life  can 
be  comprehended  by  us  and  realized  in  our  personal  lives,  when  we  identify 
ourselves  with  the  cosmos.  They  are  mysteries  to  the  ordinary  mind,  but 
realities  to  those  who  have  mastered  the  secrets  and  worked  them  out  in  life. 

How,  then,  can  we  realize  these  mysteries  and  thus  commune  with  the 
cosmic  life.^  Here  the  Shingon  Buddhism  offers  us  very  recondite  but  prac- 
tical ideas  and  observances.  The  world  is  composed  of  the  various  groups 
of  spiritual  forces  expressing  themselves  in  the  forms  and  behavior  of  ma- 
terial phenomena,  each  of  which,  according  to  Shingon  teaching,  may  be 
regarded  as  a deity,  with  his  or  her  special  attributes,  functions  and  inten- 
tions. The  number  of  these  deities,  like  the  particles  of  the  universe,  can 
never  be  exhausted;  nevertheless  they  do  not  constitute  a mere  aggregate, 
but  are  grouped  in  a definite  system  of  classes  and  finally  united  in  the 
cosmic  person  or  spirit  of  the  Great  Illuminator.  Thus  the  Shingon  cosmo- 
theism  is  most  keen  in  emphasizing  both  the  diversity  of  cpialities  and 
powers,  and  their  unity  in  the  all-embracing  Lord. 

Viewed  in  this  way,  the  beings  and  things  of  the  world  exist  in  order  to 
realize  their  participation  in  the  omnipresent  activities  of  the  Lord,  and  to 
live,  think  and  express  themselves  as  He  does.  We  human  beings,  fur- 
nished with  body  and  mind,  are  a concrete  manifestation  of  the  whole 
cosmic  structure,  and  are  destined  to  represent  the  cosmic  life  in  personal 
life;  but*being  shrouded  in  illusion  and  selfishness  we  have  lost  sight  of  the 
inner  tie  which  unites  us  with  the  Great  Illuminator,  and  of  our  real  com- 
munion with  other  beings.  It  is,  therefore,  the  purpose  of  Buddha  in  his 
innumerable  manifestations  as  various  deities  and  phenomena,  to  enlighten 
us  in  regard  to  our  original  kinship  with  him  and  in  our  destiny  to  restore 
it,  so  that  we  may  achieve  a full  participation  in  the  cosmic  life. 

The  special  tenet  of  Shingon  consists  in  showing  us  these  educative 
activities  of  Buddlia  in  concrete  representations  of  his  virtues  and  powers. 


34 


III.  BUDDHIST  COSMOTHEISM 


This  is  done  by  visualizing  in  pictures,  statues  and  rites  the  symbolic  or 
anthropomorphic  manifestations  of  Buddha  and  of  the  various  deities 
which  are  his  emanations.  The  Great  Illuminator,  for  instance,  is  some- 
times represented  as  a golden  Buddha  sitting  on  a red  or  variegated  lotus 
flower,  his  hands  folded  in  the  posture  of  profound  contemplation; 
again,  he  appears  as  a Buddha  perfectly  white  in  body  sitting  on  a 
white  lotus  and  expressing  in  his  joined  hands  his  intention  of  revealing 
truths  (Plate  XIV).  He  is  shown  also  in  a formidable  aspect  sitting  or 
standing,  his  whole  person  expressive  of  resentment  and  indignation.  In 
this  guise  he  is  called  the  Immobile  (Sanskrit,  AchaJa;  Japanese,  Fudd), 
and  his  fierce  eyes  glare  at  every  evil  thought  or  base  passion,  wliile  the 
sword  and  rope  he  holds  signify  his  readiness  to  menace  and  restrain  every 
sinful  act  (Plate  XV).  His  powers  may  also  be  visualized  by  associating 
with  his  figure  a number  of  other  deities,  each  of  whom  embodies  a certain 
attribute  or  intention  of  the  Buddha.  When,  for  example,  he  is  surrounded 
by  four  other  Buddhas,  the  arrangement  is  meant  to  signify  that  he  is  the 
kernel  and  fountain-head  of  indefatigable  determination,  inexhaustible 
blessings,  spiritual  enlightenment  and  endless  adaptability,  respectively 
represented  by  the  persons  of  the  surrounding  four.^  And  again  each  of 
these  four  may  be  represented  in  various  forms  and  accompanied  by  sub- 
ordinate figures  which  convey  their  respective  functions. 

The  characteristics  of  these  deities  are  represented  chiefly  by  facial 
expression  and  bodily  posture.  But  no  less  important  roles  are  assigned  to 
details  of  attire,  such  as  the  forms  of  crowns,  the  colors  of  lotus  pedestals, 
the  shapes  and  decorations  of  halos,  or  the  emblems  held  in  the  hands,  — 
all  of  which  are  intended  to  symbolize  virtues  and  powers  and  to  embody 
certain  aspects  of  the  cosmic  activities.  For  instance,  when  the  left  hand 
is  laid  palm  upward  on  the  knees,  the  right  hand  laid  in  the  same  way  upon 
the  left,  and  the  thumbs  joined  at  the  tips,  the  combination  is  meant  to 
express  a fusion  in  contemplation  of  the  five  material  elements  symbolized 
by  the  fingers.  Or,  when  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand  clasp  the  fore-finger 
of  the  left  according  to  a prescribed  configuration,  the  gesture  symbol- 

* See  further  the  explanation  accompanying  Plate  XVI  A. 


PLATE  XIV 

Dai-nichi,  the  Great  Illuminator 


PLATE  XIV 


Dai-nichi,  the  Great  Illuminator 
Artist  unknown 

Japanese,  Thirteenth  Century 

In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

In  this  work  of  the  middle  Kamakura  period  the  deity 
appears  as  Ichiji-kinrin,  a supreme  manifestation  of  Dai- 
nichi  shown  in  the  upper  middle  square  of  the  Diamond  Cycle, 
as  indicated  by  the  characteristic  aureola  and  the  whitish  tone 
on  both  aureola  and  figure. 

Painted  in  colors  on  silk  and  mounted  as  a kakemono. 


PLATE  XV 


Fudo  and  his  Attendants 


PLATE  XV 


Fudo  and  his  Attendants 
Artist  unknown 

Japanese,  Kamakura  Period,  Thirteenth  Century 
In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

A FIERCE  manifestation  of  Maha-Vairochana  (see  p.  32), 
holding  a sword  and  a rope  in  his  hands  and  surrounded  by 
flames.  He  is  accompanied  by  two  attendants,  the  boyish 
Konkara  (Sanskrit,  Kinkara)  and  the  elderly  Seitaka  (San- 
skrit, Caitaka?),  representing  respectively  the  sustaining 
virtue  and  the  subjugating  power  of  Fudo.  The  dragon  on 
the  left  of  the  picture  is  called  Kurikara  (Sanskrit,  Kauri- 
kdra?),  and  is  believed  to  represent  either  the  subjugating 
power  of  Fudo,  or  the  human  passions  which  are  to  be  subju- 
gated by  the  symbolic  sword  round  which  the  dragon  is  coiled. 

Painted  in  colors  on  silk  and  mounted  as  a kakemono. 


SYMBOLIC  REPRESENTATIONS 


35 


izes  the  unity  of  the  cosmic  and  the  individual  souls  in  the  final  spiritual 
enlightenment.^  Carried  in  the  hands  are  flowers,  jewels,  weapons,  staffs 
and  other  symbols,  in  almost  endless  variety,  with  which  definite  signifi- 
cations are  associated,  and  these  expressions,  postures  and  emblems  may 
thus  be  varied  so  as  to  harmonize  with  the  different  aspects  which  one  and 
the  same  deity  assumes  according  to  intentions  and  circumstances. 

To  know  all  these  signs  and  their  symbolic  meanings  is  a hard  task,  and 
we,  the  uninitiated,  must  remain  satisfied  with  being  told  that  the  possible 
deities  and  symbols  are  as  many  as  the  atoms  of  the  universe.  What  we 
can  observe  for  ourselves,  however,  is  the  bearing  of  this  mystic  symboliza- 
tion upon  painting  and  sculpture.  When  it  is  considered  that  these  intri- 
cate suggestions  cannot  be  adequately  represented  save  by  pictures  or 
statues,  and  that  even  a slight  variation  in  form  or  attitude  may  cause  a 
great  difference  in  significance  or  annul  ceremonial  efficacy,  as  is  taught  by 
Shingon,  it  is  easy  to  imagine  how  scrupulously  the  painters  and  sculptors 
must  have  worked.  Moreover,  these  representations  were  not  mere  dia- 
grams, but  portrayals  of  various  emotions,  intentions,  powers  and  virtues 
by  means  of  the  corresponding  personal  appearance  of  the  deities  repre- 
sented. This  requirement  of  Shingon  art  acted,  necessarily,  as  a strong 
incentive  to  exact  differentiation  among  the  individual  figures.  When  the 
Great  Illuminator  is  represented  in  contemplation,  the  symbolic  crown,  the 
mode  of  joining  the  hands,  the  facial  expression,  and  the  whole  bodily  atti- 
tude must  indicate  that  he  is  realizing  in  his  mind  the  truth  of  the  continu- 
ity of  existence.  When  he  appears  as  a furious  conqueror  of  passions,  his 
whole  appearance  must  be  a visualization  of  a formidable,  all-subjugating 
power.  Thus,  although  the  art  of  Shingon  was  largely  controlled  by  its 
symbolic  conventions,  and  although  some  of  its  figures  are  ultra-human  or 
even  repellent,  its  meticulous  care  in  the  matter  of  symbolic  details  was 
combined  with  an  eager  effort  for  the  realistic  execution  of  human  expres- 
sions in  face,  body  and  limbs.  This  was  carried  out  with  the  object  of  mak- 
ing visible  what  is  abstract,  by  expressing  in  tangible  manifestations  the 
supernal  powers  of  the  deities,  and  thus  furnishing  not  only  the  raison 

* For  the  symbolism  of  these  and  other  gestures,  see;  Si-do- in-dzou,  gestes  de  Vojficiant  dam  les  cere- 
monies mystiques  des  secies  Tendai  el  Shingon.  (Annates  dii  Musee  Guimel,  vol.  viii.) 


36 


III.  BUDDHIST  COSMOTHEISM 


d'Hre  of  Shingon  art,  but  also  the  strongest  motives  for  delicate  painting 
and  vigorous  sculpture,  the  results  of  which  are  seen  chiefly  in  the  art  of 
the  Heian  period,  from  the  ninth  to  the  twelfth  century. 

To  describe  in  detail  any  considerable  number  of  these  symbolic  char- 
acteristics displayed  in  Shingon  pictures  and  statues,  would  take  too  long. 
Moreover,  it  is  possible  in  this  Museum  to  study  the  works  of  art  them- 
selves and  discover  what  these  figures  and  emblems  are  meant  to  convey. 
Such  study  will,  I hope,  reveal  various  kinds  of  beauty,  serenity,  fullness, 
vitality,  fury,  and  an  expression  of  power  even  in  monstrosity ; for  the  art 
of  Shingon  is  rich  in  grace,  in  sublimity,  and  also  in  what  is  called  the 
beauty  of  ugliness.  But  another  point  to  which  I would  call  especial  atten- 
tion is  a peculiar  method  or  mood  in  delineation  whicli  may  be  called 
expression  in  suppression. 

A bodily  expression  is  usually  understood  to  be  the  natural  way  of 
moving  the  muscles  of  the  face  or  other  parts  of  the  body,  in  response  to 
the  impulses  of  thought  or  feeling.  We  weep  when  we  are  sorry,  we  laugh 
or  smile  when  we  are  amused,  or  we  lift  up  our  arms  in  crying  to  Heaven. 
These  are  natural  expressions  which  are  surely  common  to  the  majority 
of  mankind,  and,  indeed,  it  is  not  my  intention  to  deny  the  naturalness 
of  any  bodily  expressions,  but  merely  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  some  of 
them  are  matters  of  usage,  and  that  a given  emotion  may  be  expressed  in 
more  than  one  way.  Some  people  worship  by  joining  the  fingers,  others  by 
bringing  together  the  pahns  of  the  hands,  and  others  by  crossing  the  arms 
upon  the  breast.  You  of  the  West  greet  by  shaking  hemds,  the  ancient 
Chinese  joined  his  own  hands  and  raised  them,  we  Japanese  bow  down 
the  head.  These  are  expressions  under  the  control  of  usage.  On  the  other 
hand  many  people  would,  in  certain  cases,  smile  to  express  anger,  — what 
is  called  by  us  the  bitter  smile;  and  some,  instead  of  weeping,  would  sit 
in  silence.  These  I call  expressions  in  suppression. 

Doubtless  the  foregoing  is  enough  to  indicate  on  what  considerations  the 
figures  depicted  in  Shingon  art  are  based.  Many  of  them  show  expressions 
common  to  every  one ; others  conform  to  the  usage  of  Asiatic  peoples,  and 
some  others  exemplify  the  more  special  mode  of  expression  in  suppression. 


SYMBOLIC  REPRESENTATIONS 


3? 

This  last  is  best  seen  in  the  figure  of  Fud5,  a furious  manifestation  of  the 
Great  Illuminator,  to  whom  allusion  has  already  been  made.  His  name 
means  immobile  or  immovable,  and  he  sits  or  stands,  firm  and  motionless, 
surrounded  by  leaping  flames.  His  arms  are  bent  toward  his  body;  his 
hands  grasp  tightly  a sword  and  a rope;  there  is  no  attempt  to  suggest 
action;  and  yet  the  whole  posture  is  expressive  of  the  utmost  energy. 
Another  instance  may  be  seen  in  the  profound  contemplation  of  the  Great 
Illuminator.  His  whole  body  is  in  a perfect  equipoise;  his  hands  rest  on 
his  knees,  his  head  is  inclined  a little  forward,  and  his  face  is  calm  “like 
the  moon.”  There  is  no  expression  in  the  active  sense,  yet  the  figure  tells 
of  a fullness  of  wisdom  which  can  be  poured  out  without  end.  It  is  an 
infinite  eloquence  in  silence.^  Nevertheless,  the  paradox  implied  in  such  a 
phrase  is  not  real,  inasmuch  as  the  Buddhists  have  always  trained  them- 
selves to  reserve  emotion  and  to  restrain  expression  within  the  bounds  of 
potentiality. 

In  this  connection  let  me  say  a few  words  about  the  position  of  arms  and 
hands,  and  its  influence  upon  mental  states.  An  eminent  psychologist  has 
said  that  a man  does  not  weep  because  he  is  sad  but  is  sad  because  he 
weeps;  and  though  this  cannot  be  a whole  truth,  it  is  an  interesting  remark 
in  its  bearing  on  the  relation  of  bodily  posture  to  mental  conditions,  which, 
in  turn,  is  one  way  of  explaining  the  significance  of  the  various  attitudes  of 
body,  arms  and  hands  associated  with  deities  who  are  presented  in  accord- 
ance with  the  Shingon  iconography.  If  the  body,  whether  standing  or  sit- 
ting, be  held  erect,  the  palms  joined  before  the  breast,  and  the  position 
calmly  maintained ; or  if  one  hand  be  grasped  by  the  other,  as  in  the  figure 
of  the  Great  Illuminator,  and  the  respiration  be  quietly  controlled;  or  if 
all  the  muscles  of  the  body  be  contracted,  and  the  formidable  facial 
expression  of  the  Immobile  Deity  be  assumed ; — then,  by  imitating  these 
and  other  postures  in  conformity  with  the  rules  of  Shingon,  it  will  become 
possible  gradually  to  acquire  the  mental  atmosphere,  the  powers  and  the 
virtues  associated  with  these  deities.  This  point  is  emphasized  in  order  to 
show  that  the  various  attitudes  ascribed  to  the  deities  and  represented  in 


Another  instance  of  this  will  be  discussed  in  the  fourth  chapter. 


38 


III.  BUDDHIST  COSMOTHEISM 


painting  and  sculpture  are  not  mere  arbitrary  conventions,  but  realistic 
embodiments  of  the  postures  which  were  assumed  by  the  Buddhists  in  the 
course  of  their  mental  training.  Surely  there  is  much  of  symbolism  and 
conventionality  in  the  art  of  Shingon,  but  it  must  also  be  recognized  that 
these  pictures  and  statues,  in  spite  of  a strange  or  even  repellent  asjiect 
in  some  cases,  are  expressing  human  sentiments  and  volitions  in  human 
ways.  From  this  point  of  view  it  may  be  said  that  the  Shingon  art  is  a 
significant  achievement  of  genius  fostered  by  a religion  of  systematic 
mysticism,  expressed  in  association  with  veu-ious  methods  of  mental  train- 
ing and  based  upon  the  ideas  and  ideals  of  a vast  cosmotheistic  system. 

In  so  far  as  explanations  of  the  individual  deities  and  their  attributes 
may  facilitate  the  understanding  of  this  singular  combination  of  beliefs 
and  art-expressions,  the  foregoing  must,  for  the  present,  suffice.  Let  me, 
therefore,  take  up  the  general  scheme  of  the  cosmotheistic  world-view  as 
expressed  in  painting.  The  realization  of  a universal  spiritual  communion 
is  the  fundamental  ideal  of  the  Buddhist  religion;  and  the  embodiment  of 
this  ideal  in  a group  of  statues  arranged  on  a platform  and  enclosed  by 
railings,  has  been  already  described.  But  the  importance  of  this  plastic 
representation  of  the  cosmic  communion  grew  apace  with  the  growth  of 
artistic  skill  and  the  multiplication  of  mystic  ideas.  Even  the  cosmic 
scheme  of  the  great  Shingon  communion  was  often  exhibited  in  this  way. 
Nevertheless,  the  attempt  to  unify  all  possible  varieties  of  saints,  deities, 
spirits  and  demons  with  the  central  world-soul,  Buddha,  was  too  compre- 
hensive a plan  to  be  adequately  and  conveniently  expressed  except  by 
painting.^  This  circumstance  gave  rise  to  the  ingenious  but  curious  expe- 
dient of  projecting  the  whole  scheme  on  a plane  surface  and  arranging  the 
figures  side  by  side  according  to  classes  within  squares  and  circles.  The 
result  was  a composite  picture  in  which  the  figures  were  grouped  as  if  the 
statues  themselves  had  been  laid  down  on  a platform  and  looked  at  from 
above.  The  complete  cycle  of  these  groups  is  called  a mandala  or  assem- 
blage, and  is  used  to  represent  graphically  the  cosmotheistic  world-view 

' A.1  tempts  were,  however,  made  to  present  these  groups  of  figures  in  carved  reliefs  which  show  the 
transition  of  the  Shingon  mandala  from  sculpture  to  painting. 


PLATE  XVI  (A  & B) 


Shuji  Mandala 


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THE  MANDALA  CYCLES 


39 


in  its  entirety.  There  are  two  such  cycles  in  Shingon,  intended  to  embody 
the  material  manifestation  and  the  spiritual  substratum  of  the  cosmos. 
They  are  made  up  of  groups  of  appropriate  deities  arranged  in  their 
respective  compartments  about  a central  figure  of  the  Great  Illuminator 
which  varies  according  to  the  intention  of  the  compartment.  The  assem- 
blage of  divinities  constituting  the  material  manifestation  is  called  the 
Womb-Store  cycle ; ^ that  constituting  the  spiritual  substratum  is  called  the 
Diamond  or  Indestructible  cycle  ^ (Plate  XVI,  A & B), 

The  Womb-Store  is  that  aspect  of  the  universe  which  is  manifest  in  the 
behavior  of  material  things  considered,  not  as  dead  matter,  but  as  the 
living  energy  developed  by  the  cosmic  soul.  What  gives  vitality  to  these 
limitless  existences  is  conceived  in  the  forms  of  deities  whose  individual 
characteristics  are  delineated  in  the  pictorial  cycle.  Here  these  figures  are 
disposed  in  groups  around  a lotus  flower,  the  heart  of  the  universe.  On 
each  of  the  eight  petals  of  the  lotus  is  a deity,  and  the  centre  is  occupied  by 
the  Great  Illuminator,  shown  as  in  full  possession  of  the  cosmic  truths.^ 
This  heart  and  the  surrounding  groups  are  intended  to  signify  that  the 
powers  and  virtues  emanating  from  the  central  figures  find  separate  embod- 
iments in  the  persons  of  other  deities  who  are  gathered  together  in  compart- 
ments according  to  their  several  classes,  snch  as  those  who  carry  diamond 
thunderbolts  (vajra),  the  symbol  of  firm  resolution  and  indefatigable 
action;  those  who  carry  lotus  flowers,  the  sign  of  purity  and  mercy;  or 
jewel  globes  (ratna),  the  emblem  of  richness  and  benefaction.  In  the  whole 
cycle  there  are  twelve  compartments  containing  a total  of  four  hundred 
and  fourteen  figures,  each  of  which  represents  a certain  function.  Their 
postures  differ  according  to  their  respective  significance,  some  appearing  in 
dignified  composure,  others  in  charming  benignity,  others  in  fury  or  in  the 
guise  of  distress  and  misery.  Each  is  an  integral  part  of  the  cosmic  activ- 
ity, and  all  are  vivifying  the  world  by  their  powers. 

The  Diamond  Cycle,  illustrating  the  spiritual  aspect  of  the  universe, 
is  a graphic  representation  of  the  emanation  and  gradual  evolution  of  the 

* Sanskrit,  Garhha-kuksi ; Japanese,  Taizd-kai.  ^ Sanskrit,  Vajra-dhaln ; Japanese,  Kongo-kai. 

’ This  is  symbolized  by  the  gesture  of  the  hands,  which  I have  explained  to  mean  the  fusion  of  the  Cve 
elements. 


4o 


III.  BUDDHIST  COSMOTHEISM 


indestructible  prototypes,  or  eternal  ideas,  from  the  Great  Illuminator. 
It  contains  nine  squares  which  together  make  up  the  centre  and  eight 
petals  of  the  lotus,  the  heart  of  the  material  world.  Each  square  is  outlined 
by  narrow  borders  fdled  with  mystic  symbols  and  elaborate  decorations, 
and  enclosing  groups  of  deities  and  emblems.  Thus  the  central  square,  the 
source  of  all  mental  activities,  contains  five  circles.  The  central  circle,  in 
turn,  contains  five  Buddhas  in  meditation  {Dhyani-Buddha)  and  their 
attendants,  and  the  central  Buddha  is  the  Great  Illuminator,  the  licart  of 
hearts.  These  five  circles  are  enclosed  within  a large  circle,  and  the  whole 
represents  the  profound  contemplation  in  which  all  truths  of  the  material 
and  spiritual  worlds  are  fully  realized.  The  rectangular  border  enclosing 
these  circular  groups  is  twofold : in  the  inner  one  are  gathered  the  thousand 
Buddhas  who  have  appeared  as  leaders  of  mankind  in  the  different  world- 
periods;  and  the  outer  one  is  studded  with  various  gods  of  nature  or  of 
the  Hindu  pantheon,  such  as  the  Sun,  the  Moon,  Brahma,  Indra,  etc. 
These  are  intended  to  signify  that,  as  the  leaders  of  men  and  gods,  they  are 
the  manifestations  of  one  and  the  same  cosmic  soul,  and  may  be  compan- 
ions to  the  souls  of  those  who  live  in  harmony  with  the  cosmic  life  and  in 
communion  with  the  Great  Illuminator. 

The  central  square  contains  one  thousand  and  sixty-one  figures  and 
shows  the  extremely  complicated  character  of  the  mind,  both  cosmic  and 
individual;  but  on  the  other  hand  the  mind,  as  a well-concentrated  unity, 
may  be  symbolized  in  the  perfect  person  of  the  Great  Illuminator.  This 
state  of  unity  is  represented  in  the  upper  middle  square  of  the  Diamond 
Cycle,  where  the  Great  Illuminator  sits  alone  on  a lotus  in  an  attitude  of 
lofty  composure,  surrounded  by  an  aureola  of  bright  flame  and  completely 
enclosed  within  a circle  of  pure  white  light.  ^ His  face  is  expressive  of  abso- 
lute serenity,  his  posture  of  an  inviolable  dignity,  and  his  hands  are  clasped 
together  in  the  gesture  symbolic  of  full  illumination.  The  square  itself  is 

' Compare  Plate  XIV.  As  already  explained,  one  and  the  same  deity  may  appear  under  different 
aspects,  and  the  chief  difference  between  the  various  appearances  is  well  shown  in  the  Diamond  and 
Womb  Cycles.  The  deities  in  the  former  are  enclosed,  as  in  this  case,  in  the  circle  of  light,  while  those  in 
the  Womb  Cycle  have  only  the  double  aureola.  In  the  former  case  the  lotus  is  included  within  the  circle, 
while  in  the  latter  it  is  outside  the  aureola.  White  is  predominant  in  the  Diamond  Cycle  and  red  in  the 
Womb  Cycle. 


THE  MANDALA  CYCLES 


4i 

bounded  by  a twofold  rectangular  border,  filled  with  a graceful  design  of 
flowers  and  clouds  instead  of  deities  and  emblems  such  as  appear  in  the 
borders  of  other  squares.  Here,  then,  in  the  squares  of  the  Diamond 
Cycle,  we  see  contrasted  the  various  aspects  of  the  cosmic  soul:  its  diver- 
sity, as  expressed  in  the  central  group  of  over  one  thousand  deities,  and  its 
unity,  as  embodied  in  the  figure  of  the  Great  Illuminator. 

A further  illustration  of  this  relationship  between  unity  and  diversity 
is  to  be  found  in  the  Shingon  conception  of  worship.  Inside  the  larger 
circle  enclosed  by  the  central  square  of  the  Diamond  Cycle  there  are  four 
single  figures  symmetrically  disposed  about  the  group  of  five  smaller  circles 
and  representing  respectively  the  Play,  the  Garland,  the  Song,  and  the 
Dance.  In  addition  to  these  there  is  an  isolated  figure  in  each  of  the  four 
angles  of  the  inner  border,  representing  the  Incense,  the  Flower,  the  Lamp 
and  the  Perfume.  All  are  known  as  Indestructible  Entities  and  are 
associated  with  appropriate  symbols.  They  are  intended  to  signify  the 
acts  of  worship  and  adoration  paid  to  the  Great  Illuminator,  of  whom, 
however,  they  are  manifestations;  or  in  other  words,  the  Great  Illuminator, 
the  cosmic  soul,  adores  himself  by  these  various  emanations  of  his  own 
spiritual  powers,  while  they,  the  manifested  Indestructibles,  worship  by 
their  respective  acts  the  real  spiritual  entity  and  source  of  all  emanations. 
There  is  here  represented  the  distinction  existing  between  the  worshipped 
and  the  worshippers,  but  it  is  at  the  same  time  implied  that  the  two  are  not 
separate  entities  but,  in  reality,  a unit.  Thus  the  palpable  representation 
of  the  acts  of  worship  symbolizes  the  truth  that  worship  or  adoration  is 
based  on  the  spiritual  ties  which  unite  the  worshippers  with  the  wor- 
shipped. He  who  adores  the  Divinity  which  is  the  consummation  of  his 
ideals  and  the  source  of  inspiration  and  consolation,  is  realizing  the  spirit 
of  that  Divinity  in  his  own  soul,  because  his  soul  is  in  communion  with, 
and  inspired  hy,  the  Divinity.  This  is  the  Shingon  theory  of  worship  pre- 
sented as  a corollary  to  its  theory  of  the  relation  between  unity  and  diver- 
sity, and  the  same  idea  is  repeated  in  another  square  to  the  left  of  the 
central  square  in  the  Diamond  Cycle.  Here  each  of  the  deities  surrounding 
a central  Buddha  carries  a lotus  flower,  the  act  of  worship  consisting  in 


42 


III.  BUDDHIST  COSMOTHEISM 


offering  to  various  Buddhas  the  symbol  of  their  own  ideal  purity  and  all- 
embracing  hearts.  This  is  a further  extension  of  worship  from  the  specihc 
deity  to  the  inclusion  of  all  deities,  and  is  tantamount  to  a develo[)ment 
of  the  idea  into  the  act. 

In  the  pictorial  representation  of  this  theory  it  is  important  to  notice 
that  all  the  acts  of  worship  are  illustrated  by  what  is  beautiful,  whether  in 
color  or  in  form,  in  rhythm,  in  odor,  in  style  or  in  expression.  Tlie  Play  is 
the  beauty  of  manner  and  posture;  the  Garland,  of  form  and  composition; 
the  Song,  of  word  and  metre;  the  Dance,  of  movement  and  rhythm;  the 
Flower,  of  color  and  fragrance ; the  Lamp,  of  light  and  warmth.  Regard- 
ing the  Incense  and  the  Perfume,  it  should  be  remembered  that  perfume 
plays  a great  part  in  all  Buddhist  ceremonies,  and  that  Buddhist  artists 
used  to  burn  incense  in  their  studios.^  In  short,  these  symbolic  figures 
typify  the  fundamental  qualities  of  all  branches  of  the  fine  arts  and  are 
summed  up  in  the  emblematic  lotus  flower.  Their  title,  “Indestructible,” 
may  therefore  be  paraphrased  by  the  term  “Prototype,”  because  they 
represent  the  ideal  elements  of  art  in  the  mind  of  the  Great  Illuminator. 
Indeed  the  artistic  presentation  of  deities  and  the  organization  of  elaborate 
rituals,  both  characteristic  features  of  Shingon  Buddhism,  are  embodied 
in  this  way  in  two  squares  of  the  Diamond  Cycle,  and  it  is  a matter  of  pride 
among  the  Shingon  Buddhists  that  they  serve  truth  and  beauty  at  the 
same  time  and  by  the  same  act.  In  a word,  the  worship  of  Divinity  should 
not  and  cannot  be  dissociated  from  the  cult  of  beauty,  and  art,  therefore, 
must  be  an  integral  part  of  religion. 

Without  further  comment  on  the  significance  of  this  cosmotheistic  reli- 
gion, it  is  already  plain  that  we  see  here  a very  comprehensive  world-view 
visualized  in  graphic  representations  of  manifold  figures  and  symbols. 
The  art  of  painting  has  become  an  indispensable  adjunct  to  the  rehgion  of 
cosmic  communion,  and  inasmuch  as  this  communion  includes  every  kind 
of  existence,  the  pictorial  representation  of  the  universe  as  a whole  or  in 
detail  is  necessarily  made  up  of  intricate  symbolic  suggestions  and  boldly 
imaginative  personifications.  Subtle  reasoning  united  with  daring  con- 

‘ In  the  Zen  Buddhism,  of  which  I shall  speak  in  the  fourth  chapter,  perfume  gave  place  to  tea;  but 
incense  retained  its  own,  or  an  even  greater,  role  in  both  the  religion  and  the  art  of  Zen. 


PLATE  XVII 

Dai-Itoku->iy5w6,  the  Great  Majestic  Power 


PLATE  XVII 


Dai-Itoku-myow6,  the  Great  Majestic  Power 
Japanese,  Tenth  Century 
In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

Although  his  typical  figure  has  six  faces  which  exhibit  the 
six  miraculous  powers,  and  six  arms  which  purify  the  six 
resorts  of  transmigration,  he  is  shown  in  this  wood  sculpture 
of  the  Fujiwara  period  with  but  three  faces  and  two  arms,  the 
latter  joined  in  the  mystic  form  of  the  one-pointed  vajra.  The 
pedestal,  though  of  early  date,  was  not  originally  intended  for 
this  statue. 


SINGLE  DEITIES 


43 


struction ; high  ideals  expressed  in  terms  of  form  and  substance ; figures  of 
exquisite  grace  and  profound  serenity  mingled  with  shapes  of  terrible 
power;  — these  are  the  characteristics  of  the  Shingon  religion  and  art. 
The  mind  may  be  calmed  by  the  dignified  composure  of  the  Great  Illumi- 
nator, but  appalled  by  the  all-devouring  flame  of  the  angry  destroyer ; and 
a deity  of  compassionate  love  may  appear  metamorphosed  into  a furious 
demon.  Many  of  us  would  not  care  to  look  upon  these  dreadful  figures, 
and  might  wonder  why  such  monstrous  forms  were  portrayed  by  artists. 
But  to  love  good  is  to  hate  evil,  and  a deity  may  be  represented  from 
either  point  of  view.  The  Shingon  teachers  might  say  to  us:  “You  enjoy 
the  serene  dignity  of  the  Great  Illuminator  because  your  inmost  heart  is 
in  communion  with  him.  You  fear  the  stern  and  angry  countenance  of 
the  Immobile  Deity  because  you  have  in  your  mind  and  life  that  which 
could  be  chastised  by  his  indignant  sword.”  However  this  may  be,  the  art 
of  Shingon,  though  it  abounds  in  conventional  symbols  and  terrific  figures, 
is  nevertheless  pervaded  by  undeniable  grandeur  and  harmony  throughout 
the  whole  scheme  of  the  cosmic  cycles.  In  many-sidedness  the  Shingon 
religion  is  an  eclectic  system,  but  in  the  emphasis  it  lays  upon  the  ideal 
of  communion,  it  is  true  Buddhism. 

Additional  illustrations  of  the  foregoing  may  be  drawn  from  the  consid- 
eration of  some  of  the  individual  deities  who  find  places  in  the  cycles. 
Dai-Itoku,  or  the  Great  Majestic  Power,  a modification  of  the  Brahmanic 
Yamantaka,  the  god  of  death,  is  supposed  to  be  a metamorphosis  of  Monju, 
the  god  of  wisdom,  and  occupies  an  important  position  in  the  Womb 
Cycle,  under  the  central  compartment.  He  has  six  faces,  furious  in  expres- 
sion and  livid  in  color;  his  hair  is  fire;  his  six  arms  carry  a spear,  a sword,  a 
staff,  a rope,  bows  and  arrows,  and  he  sits  on  a rugged  rock,  surrounded 
by  flame.  This  figure,  dire  as  it  is,  represents  the  irresistible  power  of 
death  which  kills  all  evils  and  vices  (Plate  XVII).  Fud5,  or  the  Immobile 
Deity,  to  whom  I have  already  referred  as  a manifestation  of  the  Great 
Illuminator,  is  another  example  of  a formidable  figure;  and,  indeed,  there 
are  many  others  who  are  thought  to  be  modifications  of  the  deities  of  wis- 


44 


III.  BUDDHIST  COSMOTHEISM 


dom  or  mercy  (Plate  XVIII).  This  belief  is  not  difficult  to  understand  if 
we  consider  the  fact  that  in  the  human  mind  righteous  wisdom  becomes 
resentful  indignation  when  directed  against  wickedness,  and  loving  kind- 
ness may  involve  uncompromising  austerity  when  confronted  with  a trans- 
gression. The  wisdom  that  comprehends  all  truth  and  allows  no  point 
thereof  to  remain  obscure,  becomes  a repressive  and  conquering  power 
when  directed  against  ignorance  and  prejudice;  in  like  manner,  love  em- 
braces all  and  therefore  enforces  its  influence  upon  those  who  would 
disregard  it.  This  is  what  Shingon  teaches  in  doctrine  and  makes  visible 
in  painted  and  sculptured  representations. 

Now  let  us  see  how  the  spirit  of  mercy  is  personified.  One  of  the  most 
popular  deities  of  mercy  included  in  the  cosmic  cycles  is  Kwannon  (Plates 
XIX  and  XX,  A,  B,  & C),  who  has  already  been  described  in  his  mani- 
festation as  the  merciful  All-Mother  (Plate  VII).  His  Sanskrit  name, 
Avalokitesvara,  probably  meaning  On-looking  Sovereign,  is  masculine  in 
gender,  and  though  he  appears  sometimes  as  a formidable  conqueror,  he  is 
oftener  and  perhaps  more  properly  shown  as  a deity  of  love  and  compassion, 
quite  feminine  in  the  gentleness  of  his  expression.  Hence  he  is  preemi- 
nently known  and  worshipped  as  a merciful  benefactor  of  mankind.  In  his 
hand  he  carries  a lotus  flower;  his  bright  hair  hangs  beautifully  about  his 
shoulders,  which  are  always  draped,  and  the  rest  of  his  body  is  partly 
covered  with  veils  and  garlands.  Another  beloved  and  kindly  benefactor 
is  Jiz5,  or  Ksiti-garbha,  the  Earth-Womb  (Plate  XXI),  who  visits  the 
subterranean  worlds  where  doomed  spirits  are  suffering.  He  carries  in  his 
right  hand  a pilgrim’s  staff  provided  at  the  top  with  jingling  rings  which 
serve  to  arouse  the  spirits  in  agony  to  the  presence  of  an  all-embracing 
mercy,  and  in  his  left  hand  he  holds  a jewel  symbolizing  the  inexhaustible 
richness  of  bliss  and  wisdom  with  which  he  hberally  endows  all  the  desti- 
tute. He  appears  most  frequently  as  a monk,  his  shaved  head  encircled 
by  a radiant  halo;  and  wherever  he  goes  there  spring  up  lotus  flowers 
beneath  his  feet. 

Associated  with  Jizo  as  a beneficent  deity  is  Kokuzo,  or  Akasa-garbha, 
the  Sky-Womb  (Plates  XXII  and  XXHI),  also  a god  of  wisdom.  But 


PLATE  XVIII 


Aizen-myoavo,  the  Great  Passion 


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PLATE  XIX 


Kwannon 


PLATE  XIX 


Kwannon 

Japanese,  Eighth  Century 

In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 


This  heroic  wood  sculpture  of  the  compassionate  Bodhi- 
sattva  shows  him  in  the  attitude  of  conferring  a blessing  with 
his  right  hand,  while  in  his  left  he  originally  held  a lotus.  In 
piety  of  expression  and  simplicity  of  execution  the  figure  is 
representative  of  the  sculpture  of  the  Tempyo  period,  before 
ideas  of  complicated  decoration  were  seriously  considered, 
and  it  is  interesting  to  notice  how  strongly  the  influence  of 
Indian  prototypes  is  maintained  in  the  pose  of  the  body  as 
well  as  in  the  attire  of  the  loins.  The  arms  and  the  free  end  of 
drapery  just  below  the  breast  are  restorations,  though  not  of 
recent  date. 


PLATES  XX  A,  XX  B,  XX  C 

Kwannon 


PLATES  XX  A,  XX  B,  & XX  C 

Kwannon 
Artist  unknown 

Japanese,  Kamakura  Period,  Late  Thirteenth  Century 
In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 


This  deity  is  believed  to  manifest  him- 
self in  six,  twenty-one,  or  thirty-three  dif- 
ferent forms,  in  order  to  induce  enlighten- 
ment and  felicity  in  beings  of  various  kinds. 
Three  of  the  set  of  six  manifestations  are 
illustrated  here. 

A.  Byaku-e  Kwannon  (Sanskrit,  Pan- 
dara-vasinl) , the  White-robed,  is  a feminine 
manifestation.  Her  whole  body  is  pale 
gold  in  tone,  and  is  partly  covered  with 
thin  veils  “like  morning  mists.”  In  her 
right  hand  she  holds  a casket  containing 
the  sacred  scripture,  and  in  her  left,  a 
cord.  She  is  supposed  to  avert  disaster 
in  response  to  prayer. 

B.  Sho-Kwannon  (Sanskrit,  Arya-Avalo- 
kilesvara),  the  Holy  Compassionate  Lord. 
This  is  the  most  usual  appearance  of  the 
deity.  In  his  left  hand  he  holds  a lotus 
flower,  symbolic  of  the  essence  of  enlighten- 
ment inherent  in  every  one’s  soul,  which  he 
induces  to  bloom  more  fuUy  by  the  gesture 
of  his  right  hand.  On  his  head  he  wears  a ' 
crown  in  which  is  set  a figure  of  the  Buddha 
Amita,  Lord  of  the  Western  Paradise, 
whom  Kwannon  serves. 


C.  Nyorrin  Kwannon  (Sanskrit,  Cintd- 
mani-cakra),  the  Lord  who,  having  mas- 
tered the  secret  of  the  Cinldmani  Jewel, 
turns  the  mysterious  Wheel  of  Truth 
(Dharma-cakra) . He  has  six  arms.  The 
first  right  hand  supports  the  chin,  — an 
attitude  of  meditation  in  compassion  for 
beings  immersed  in  the  purgatories  ; the 
second  holds  the  Jewel  which  grants  every 
wish,  so  that  response  may  be  made  to  the 
needs  of  hungry  ghosts;  the  third  holds  a 
rosary  which  redeems  bestial  existence;  the 
first  left  hand  rests  on  a symbolic  represen- 
tation of  a mountain,  implying  the  salva- 
tion of  ferocious  spirits  (Sanskrit,  Asura) 
by  the  virtue  of  firmness ; the  second  holds 
a lotus  which  purifies  mankind  of  all 
depravities;  and  the  third  grasps  the  wheel 
of  truth  which  governs  the  cosmos  and  en- 
lightens aU  beings.  The  crown  is  set  with 
a figure  of  Buddha  Amita,  and  the  lotus 
pedestal  rests  on  a rock  in  the  sea  of  wisdom. 

Painted  in  colors  and  gold  on  wooden 
shrine  doors. 


H 


I 


PLATE  XXI 


Jizo,  THE  Earth-Womb 


PLATE  XXI 


Jizo,  THE  Earth- Womb 
Artist  unknown 

Japanese,  Early  Fourteenth  Century 
In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

The  calm  dignity  of  the  figure  well  represents  the  merciful 
benefactor  of  mankind,  always  ready,  in  a spirit  of  compas- 
sion, to  give  anything  out  of  the  inexhaustible  jewel  which  he 
holds  in  his  left  hand.  The  picture,  a work  of  the  late  Kama- 
kura period,  shows  great  delicacy  and  freedom  in  spite  of  the 
rigid  iconographical  rules  of  Shingon  Buddhism. 

Painted  in  colors  and  gold  on  silk,  and  mounted  as  a 
kakemono. 


1 


PLATE  XXII 

Kokuz5,  the  Sky-Womb 


PLATE  XXII 


Kokuz5,  the  Sky-Womb 
Artist  unknown 

Japanese,  Thirteenth  Century 
In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

He  symbolizes  the  union  of  wisdom  and  compassion,  the 
two  cardinal  virtues  of  Buddha.  Both  of  these  virtues  are  all- 
comprehensive  and  indestructible,  like  the  sky;  hence  his 
name.  He  wears  the  pentagonal  crown  of  the  five-fold  wis- 
dom, the  wisdom  which  includes  and  penetrates  all ; his  right 
arm  hangs  with  the  palm  of  the  hand  directed  toward  his 
worshippers,  signifying  unlimited  giving;  and  the  left  hand 
holds  a lotus  flower  on  which  is  deposited  the  jewel  of  inex- 
haustible wealth.  His  double  halos  emit  flame  and  his  whole 
body  is  surrounded  by  another  halo  symbolizing  his  immer- 
sion in  the  all-pervading  wisdom.  The  seven  small  figures 
above  represent  the  seven  stars  of  the  constellation  Ursa 
Major,  and  the  nine  figures  below  represent  the  sun,  the 
moon,  the  five  planets,  Bahu  {eclipse)  and  Ketu  (comet,)  to- 
gether known  as  the  nine  heavenly  bodies.  All  are  shown 
in  the  forms  of  the  Hindu  deities  who  were  believed  to  be 
the  noumena  of  these  stars. 

Painted  in  gold  and  colors  on  silk  and  mounted  as  a kake- 
mono. 


PLATE  XXIII 


Kokuzo,  the  Sky-Womb 


PLATE  XXIII 


Kokuz5,  the  Sky-Womb 
Artist  unknown 

Japanese,  Late  Fourteenth  Century 
In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

A DESCRIPTION  of  this  deity  may  be  found  in  the  legend 
attached  to  Plate  XXII.  As  depicted  here  he  holds  the 
sword  of  wisdom  in  his  right  hand,  and  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
painting  a view  of  Mount  Asakuma,  in  the  Yamato  style, 
is  introduced  according  to  the  usual  practice  of  painters 
of  the  Kasuga  school  — a branch  of  the  Yamato.  The  pic- 
ture, dating  from  early  Ashikaga  times,  is  a skilful  but 
somewhat  mechanical  repetition  of  the  conventional  Ryobu 
figure  of  Kokuz5,  and  is  offered  as  a good  illustration  of  the 
Japanizing  process  in  Buddhist  art. 

Pcunted  in  colors  on  silk  and  mounted  as  a kakemono. 


PLATE  XXIV 

Monju,  the  Charming  Splendor 


PLATE  XXIV 


Monju,  the  Charming  Splendor 
Artist  unknown 

Japanese,  Early  Fourteenth  Century 
In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

The  deity  is  shown  here  as  a boy  representing  the  fresh 
vigor  and  youthful  dignity  of  wisdom.  In  his  right  hand  he 
carries  a sword,  emblematic  of  penetrating  insight;  and  in  his 
left  he  holds  a lotus  flower  on  which  a sacred  text,  the  store  of 
truth,  is  laid.  He  rides  upon  a lion,  — his  frequent  associate. 
The  picture  is  a work  of  the  late  Kamakura  period  in  which 
the  rules  of  Shingon  iconography  are  rather  loosely  treated, 
and  the  outlines  much  softened. 

Painted  in  colors  on  silk  and  mounted  as  a kakemono. 


PLATE  XXV 


Monju,  the  Charming  Splendor 


PLATE  XXV 


Monju,  the  Charming  Splendor 
Artist  unknown 

Japanese,  Kamakura  Period,  Thirteenth  Century 
In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

See  the  legend  accompanying  Plate  XXIV.  The  deity  is 
shown  here  with  a scroll,  instead  of  a sword,  in  his  right  hand, 
and  without  his  lion. 

Painted  in  colors  on  silk  and  mounted  as  a kakemono. 


PLATE  XXVI 


Fugen,  the  All-pervading  Wisdom 


PLATE  XXVI 


Fugen,  the  All-pervading  Wisdom 
Artist  unknown 

Japanese,  Early  Twelfth  Century 
In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

He  appears  here  as  the  Giver  of  Life,  in  a special  manifesta- 
tion known  as  Fugen  En-myo,  the  Indestructible  Existence, 
a consequence  of  wisdom  and  insight.  The  elephant  he  rides 
is  standing  on  the  Indestructible  Wheel  of  the  cosmos,  and 
has  three  heads,  each  provided  with  six  tusks  which  are  some- 
times explained  as  symbolic  of  the  subjugation  of  the  six 
sources  of  temptation,  — i.  e.,  the  five  senses  and  the  will. 
Ranged  in  pairs  on  either  side  are  the  four  Guardian 
Kings.  The  picture,  originally  one  member  of  a triptych,  dates 
from  the  Fujiwara  period  and  conforms,  for  the  most  part,  to 
the  iconographical  rules  of  Shingon  Buddhism. 

Painted  in  colors  on  silk  and  mounted  as  a panel. 


PLATES  XXVII  A,  XXVII  B,  XXVII  C 

The  Shaka  Triad 


PLATES  XXVII  A,  XXVII  B & XXVII  C 

The  Shaka  Triad 
Artist  unknown 

Japanese,  Late  Fifteenth  Century 
In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

When  Shaka  Buddha  (B)  appears  accompanied  by  these 
two  Bodhisattva,  Fugen  (A)  on  his  right  and  Monju  (C)  on 
his  left,  he  is  understood  to  be  preaching  the  Mahdydna,  or 
Greater  Vehicle  — a suggestion  derived  from  the  same  source 
as  the  Shingon  symbolism,  but  older  than  the  latter  and  not 
native  to  it.  This  triptych  is  a work  of  the  Ashikaga  period 
and  is  a well-preserved  example  of  the  conventional  Takuma 
style. 

Painted  in  colors  and  gold  on  silk  and  mounted  as  three 
kakemono. 


u 


c 


PLATE  XXVIII 


A Syncretic  Mandala 


PLATE  XXVIII 


A Syncretic  Mandala 
Artist  unknown 

Japanese,  Thirteenth  Century 
In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

The  fundamental  tenet  of  the  Ryobu,  or  Syncretic,  Shinto 
was  that  every  existence  had  two  aspects,  the  ideal  and  the 
actual  as  represented  by  its  two  cycles.  This  doctrine,  ap- 
plied to  the  indigenous  deities  of  Japan,  was  so  formulatt'd 
that  every  Japanese  deity  was  explained  to  be  a mani- 
festation of  a Buddhist  deity.  The  pictorial  version  of  this 
doctrine  here  reproduced,  represents  the  deities  of  Kasuga 
temple  in  their  Buddhist  noumena:  Shaka,  in  the  centre; 
Yakushi  (Bhaisajya-guru) , the  Lord  of  medicine,  above  on 
the  right;  Jizo,  above  on  the  left;  Monju,  with  sword  and 
scripture,  below  on  the  left;  and  the  Eleven  Headed  Kwan- 
non,  with  a flask  in  his  left  hand,  below  on  the  right.  In 
the  background  above  is  the  hill  of  Kasuga  or  Mikasa.  As 
an  illustration  of  the  belief  in  the  deity  of  Kasuga,  the  follow- 
ing hymn  of  the  eleventh  century  is  not  without  interest:  — 

“The  Deity  of  Mikasa  hill. 

Whom  we  worship  and  to  whom  we  now  pray. 

Is  surely  looking  upon  us. 

So  long  as  we  are  blessed  by  him, 

Sure  is  the  prosperity  of  our  lord, 

Who  rules  the  lands  under  heaven.” 

The  syncretic  idea  dates  from  the  eighth  century,  but  this 
mode  of  representation  is  not  earlier  than  the  twelfth  century, 
and  the  picture  is  a still  later  work  of  the  Kamakura  period. 

Painted  in  colors  on  silk  and  mounted  as  a kakemono. 


THE  SYNCRETIC  MANDALA 


45 


more  important,  perhaps,  in  this  latter  respect  is  Monju,  or  Manjusri,  the 
Charming  Splendor  (Plates  XXIV,  XXV  and  XXVII C),  to  whom  reference 
has  already  been  made  as  the  noumenon  of  Dai-Itoku.  He  is  a beautiful  and 
kingly  youth,  whose  wisdom  is  conspicuously  symbolized  in  the  sword  with 
which  he  cuts  away  all  doubts  and  perplexities.  He  is  often  shown  mounted 
on  a lion,  the  emblem  of  valor  and  energy,  those  indispensable  comple- 
ments of  wisdom;  and  he  appears,  too,  as  a youthful  prince  who,  like  wis- 
dom, is  ever  fresh  and  vigorous.  The  associate  of  Monju  is  Fugen,  or 
Samantabhadra,  the  All-pervading  Wisdom  (Plates  XXVI  and  XXVII  A), 
also  a noble  youth,  who  wears  the  crown  of  the  fivefold  wisdom,  carries 
a sword,  or  a vessel  from  which  he  pours  forth  the  water  of  wisdom,  and 
often  rides  upon  an  elephant,  the  symbol  of  sagacity  and  prudence. 

Inasmuch  as  a single  deity  may  manifest  himself  in  a variety  of  ways 
limited  only  by  the  possible  aspects  of  his  character  and  virtues,  it  is  obvi- 
ous that  the  number  of  figures  and  symbols  represented  may  be  multiplied 
to  almost  any  extent.  But  omitting  all  further  descriptions  of  them,  let 
us,  in  conclusion,  follow  up  a related  offshoot  of  the  ideas  underlying 
Shingon  art.  At  a comparatively  early  date  the  Buddhist  notion  that  the 
cosmic  communion  must  be  extended  to  every  phase  of  existence  and  that 
the  deities  may  appear  in  any  forms,  had  been  applied  to  the  indigenous 
pantheon  of  Japan.  All  the  Japanese  gods  were  thus  absorbed  into  the 
Buddhist  communion,  each  of  them  was  explained  to  be  but  another  mani- 
festation of  a Buddhist  deity,  and  the  result  was  the  formation  of  a syn- 
cretic religion  called  Rydbii  Shinto,  to  which  the  device  of  the  mandala, 
or  pictorial  cycle  was  naturally  applied.  In  these  paintings,  known  as 
Rydbii,  or  syncretic  mandala  (Plate  XXVIII),  the  stars,  animals,  women, 
semi-divine  children  and  various  other  figures  were  mingled  with  Hindu 
gods,  and  Japanese  deities  clad  in  Sino- Japanese  robes  like  those  of  the 
court  nobles  and  Shinto  priests,  were  represented  side  by  side  with  Bud- 
dhist divinities  and  patriarchs. 

The  syncretic  Shinto  had,  indeed,  been  in  vogue  before  the  rise  of  the 
Ryobu  mandala;  but  so  long  as  the  Shingon  Buddhists  adhered  to  their 


46 


III.  BUDDHIST  COSMOTHEISM 


own  rules  in  depicting  their  own  deities,  any  deviation  from  these  rules  by 
members  of  the  sect  was  inadmissible.  Nevertheless,  the  freer  treatment 
of  Buddhist  subjects  progressed  step  by  step,  as  we  have  seen  in  the  works 
of  Eshin  and  his  followers;  and  those  forms  of  religious  faith  inspired  by 
personal  devotion  and  not  totally  proscribed  by  tradition,  suited  their 
artistic  expression  rather  to  indigenous  than  to  exotic  requirements,  by 
introducing  native  landscapes  and  life  into  religious  pictures.  This  Japan- 
izing  process  has  already  been  discussed  in  connection  with  the  Buddhist 
genre  painting  which  came  into  prominence  during  the  twelfth  century, 
and  with  which  the  development  of  the  Ryobu  mandala  was  so  closely 
associated  that  artists  of  the  Tosa  and  Kasuga  schools  worked  in  both 
manners.  The  syncretic  maridala  itself  is  characterized  more  by  charm 
than  by  dignity,  by  harmony  of  colors  rather  than  by  brilliancy.  It  suc- 
ceeded not  only  in  making  the  Buddhist  deities  seem  less  remote,  but  also 
in  providing  the  Shinto  deities  with  artistic  forms;  while  the  composition 
of  its  background  contributed,  in  association  with  the  Buddhist  genre 
painting,  to  the  development  of  a pure  landscape  style  and  to  the  seculari- 
zation of  Shingon  art. 

At  this  point  we  must  leave  behind  the  symbolism  of  the  cosmic  system, 
with  its  many  beautiful  and  dire  visions,  and  turn  at  last  to  the  realm  and 
ways  of  mankind.  Our  path  has  aheady  led  us  through  the  delicate  and 
magnificent  art  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  as  well  as  through 
those  artistic  phases  of  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  centuries 
wherein  the  influence  of  Shingon  mystery  and  iconography  still  lingered. 
Now,  however,  we  approach  another  branch  of  Buddhism  which  was 
introduced  into  Japan  during  the  thirteenth  century  and  was  destined  to 
have  a profound  effect  in  simplifying  the  then  existing  forms  of  Buddhist 
thought  and  expression  through  the  emphasis  it  laid  upon  the  adequacy 
of  untrammelled  nature. 


PLATE  XXIX 


A Landscape.  By  Sesshu 


PLATE  XXIX 


A Landscape 
By  Sesshu,  i420-i5o6 
Japanese,  Ashikaga  Idealistic  School 

In  the  Imperial  Museum,  Tokyo 

Painted  in  ink  on  paper  and  mounted  as  a kakemono. 


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PLATE  XXX 


Ideal  Portrait  of  Bodhidharma.  By  Men  Wu-kuan  {Mon-mukwan) 


PLATE  XXX 


Ideal  Portrait  of  Bodhidharma 
First  Patriarch  of  Zen  Buddhism  in  China 

By  Men  Wu-kuan  {Mon-mukwan) 

Chinese,  Thirteenth  Century 

Owned  by  Myoshin-ji,  near  Kyoto, 
and  now  deposited  in  the  Imperial  Museum,  Kyoto 

This  picture  is  the  middle  one  of  a set  of  three,  the  other 
two,  in  accordance  with  the  frequent  usages  of  Zenists,  repre- 
senting things  commonly  met  with  in  nature.  The  painter 
was  a Zen  monk  whose  name,  “Gateway  without  Doors,” 
suggests  the  Zenist  ideal  of  mental  freedom.  The  poem  at  the 
top  of  the  picture  is  by  Wen  Li  (1206-89),  ^ Chinese  monk  of 
Mount  Tien-mu,  and  comments  on  the  expression  of  the 
patriarch  to  the  following  effect:  — 

“O  thou  solitary  sage!  hast  thou  a skin? 

Then  surely  blood  is  streaming  in  thee. 

Canst  utter  words? 

Given  a flower,  what  wouldst  do? 

Thy  lips  would  be  a drum,  thy  chin  a banner,  eh  ?” 

Painted  in  ink  on  paper  and  mounted  as  a kakemono. 


IV 


BUDDHIST  NATURALISM  AND  INDIVIDUALISM:  THE  TRANSITION  FROM 
RELIGIOUS  TO  SECULAR  ARTS 

To  illustrate  the  descent  from  the  cloudy  heights  of  mysticism  to  the 
clearer  plain  of  human  abode,  I may  best  begin  by  calling  attention  to  a 
landscape  (Plate  XXIX)  in  black  and  white,  — like  some  view  seen  in  a 
dream.  In  the  foreground  are  suggestions  of  rocks,  trees  and  a beach,  all 
drawn  with  a few  strokes,  as  if  the  artist  had  to  spare  both  ink  and  brush. 
In  the  background  appear  faint  shades,  probably  distant  precipices. 
Modern  critics  would  classify  this  sketch  among  the  works  of  impression- 
ism or  idealism,  and  such  classification  may  well  be  correct  as  far  as  it  goes. 
But  we  are  concerned  here  less  with  the  class  to  which  a painting  belongs 
than  with  the  religious  motive  which  inspired  the  painter.  In  the  present 
instance  the  artist  was  a Buddhist  monk,  Sesshu  (i420-i5o6),  one  of  the 
greatest  of  Japanese  painters;  and  this  landscape  was  given  by  him  to  one 
of  his  disciples  in  recognition  not  only  of  proficiency  in  art,  but  also  of 
spiritual  attainment  in  Buddhist  training.  How,  then,  and  in  what  sense 
could  this  be  a religious  painting? 

In  order  to  prepare  for  the  solution  of  this  question,  I shall  ask  consider- 
ation for  another  ink  drawing  (Plate  XXX).  Here  you  see  the  face  of  a 
man  who  seems  to  be  looking  at  something  intently.  His  mouth  is  tightly 
closed,  whether  in  a sarcastic  smile  or  in  determined  resolution,  one  can 
hardly  tell,  but  surely  in  perpetual  silence.  A few  rough,  vigorous  strokes 
indicate  that  his  hands  are  folded  under  a robe  which  covers  his  shoulders 
and  leaves  his  breast  exposed.  Simplicity  and  boldness  of  composition  and 
suggestiveness  of  line  are  apparent;  and  these  technical  characteristics  are 
so  combined  in  the  singular  expression  of  the  figure,  as  to  indicate  reserves 
of  strength  behind  the  outward  composure.  The  picture  is  meant  to  be  a 
portrait  of  Bodhidharma,’  the  first  patriarch  of  Zen  Buddhism  in  China. 


Japanese,  Daruma ; Chinese,  Ta-rno. 


48 


IV.  BUDDHIST  NATURALISM 


He  came  to  that  country  in  the  sixth  century,  and  from  his  life  and  teachings 
Japanese  Buddhism,  after  the  thirteenth  century,  derived  its  inspiration. 
This  portrait  was  undoubtedly  based  upon  an  older  one  taken  from  life; 
but  in  all  probability  such  considerations  did  not  greatly  concern  the  artist, 
whose  object  was  to  show  the  face  and  posture  typical  of  a man  who  had 
attained  a lofty  spiritual  training  in  the  sect  of  Zen.  It  is  believed  also 
that  the  simple  technique  and  bold  expression  are  in  real  accordance  with 
the  spirit  of  that  teaching,  as  well  as  with  the  ideal  look  of  the  patriarch. 

As  in  the  landscape  we  have  just  considered,  so  in  this  portrait  there 
prevails  a mood  of  deep  serenity  resulting  from  the  spiritual  attainment 
and  mental  purity  which  were  identified  with  the  “ hf e-movement  of  the 
spirit  through  the  rhythm  of  things,”  as  Mr.  Okakura  has  expressed  it.^ 
This  affinity  of  the  artist’s  mind  for  the  rhythm  of  the  world  gives  to  his 
work  an  air  of  inwardness.  According  to  these  painters,  a picture  should 
be  the  soul  of  nature  brought  to  a focus  before  the  purified,  spiritual  eyes 
of  man,  — the  cosmic  spirit  embodied  in  a httle  space  tluough  a mind  in 
full  grasp  of  the  cosmos ; and  thus  it  is  the  pulsation  of  the  cosmic  rhythm 
in  the  individual  mind  that  gives  the  serenity  of  the  “ air-rhythm  ” ^ and  the 
pure  outline  of  the  “wind-frame.”^  This  religion,  — though  application 
of  the  word  religion  to  it  may  seem  not  quite  well  fitted,  — this  Buddhist 
religion,  brought  to  Japan  through  China  together  with  its  art  and  poetry, 
was  destined  to  supersede  the  Shingon  mysteries  and  to  pervade  human  life 
with  a spirit  of  naturalism. 

Zen  was  a branch  of  Buddhism  which  laid  special  emphasis  upon  medi- 
tation. Its  adherents  believed  that  to  them  had  been  directly  transmitted 
the  spiritual  illumination  of  Buddha,  and  they  cultivated  his  method  of 
meditation  simply  and  purely,  without  admixture  of  mysterious  rituals 
and  doctrinal  analysis.  They  had,  moreover,  inherited  the  nature- 

' Quoting  from  the  words  of  the  Chinese  artist  Hsieh  Ho  (Japanese,  Shakaku)  in  The  Ideals  of  the  East, 
p.  5a.  Hsieh  Ho  lived  during  the  Southern  Chi  dynasty,  a.d.  479~5o2. 

2 A term  expressive  of  spiritual  vitality,  nobility,  and  refinement.  It  is  the  first  of  the  Six  Canons  of 
painting  formulated  by  Hsieh  Ho. 

’ This  term  denotes  simultaneous  conception  and  composition,  and  implies  a free,  unmannered  quality 
of  brush  work.  It  is  a requisite  of  good  painting  demanded  by  the  Chinese  artist  Wang  Chung-shu  of  the 
Sui  dynasty,  58g-6i8. 


THE  ZEN  PRACTICE  OF  MEDITATION 


4o 


mysticism^  of  the  Indian  Buddhists  which,  together  with  tlie  poetry  of  the 
southern  Chinese,  became  a source  of  inspiration  for  the  artistic  sense  of 
the  Japanese.  The  chief  effort  of  tliis  sect  was  directed  toward  the  attain- 
ment of  spiritual  enlightenment  through  personal  experience  in  contemj)la- 
tion,  and  the  effects  of  this  practice  were  shown  in  manifestations  of  strong 
individuality.  At  the  same  time  a feeling  for  the  tranquil  beauty  of  nature 
produced  a serene  “air-rhythm”  of  transcendence  over  the  incidents  of 
human  life.  This  somewhat  paradoxical  combination  of  individualism  and 
transcendentalism  resulted  in  an  identification  of  self  with  the  world,  a 
state  to  be  realized  only  tlu’ough  insight  into  the  heart  and  spirit  of  nature. 
Passion,  or  even  enthusiasm,  is  an  impediment  to  this  attainment  and  rea- 
son is  useless;  the  essential  is  intuition,  which  illumines  the  mind  like  a 
flash  in  darkness,  and  pervades  the  whole  air  like  moonlight. 

Let  me  elucidate  these  points  a little  further.  The  practitioner  of  Zen, 
whom  I might  call  a Zenist,  takes  pride  in  the  thought  that  his  method  is 
an  unwritten  tradition  originally  transmitted  by  Buddha  to  his  great  dis- 
ciple Alaha-Kasyapa,  when  the  Master  lifted  a flower  in  his  hand  and  the 
disciple  responded  to  the  implied  riddle  with  silence  and  a smile.  What 
question  this  flower  was  meant  to  convey,  or  why  it  was  answered  by  a 
smile  can  be  realized  only  intuitively  and  in  meditation.  But  the  transmis- 
sion itself  is  not  based  on  Buddha’s  invention  or  on  any  artifice;  it  traverses 
the  innermost  recesses  of  the  mind  enlightened  in  the  truths  of  nature,  so 
that  every  Zenist  should  receive  his  spiritual  illumination  through  the 
medium  of  his  own  soul,  directly  from  the  vast  sources  of  the  cosmos.  All 
instruction  is  but  as  a finger  pointing  to  the  moon;  and  he  whose  gaze  is 
fixed  upon  the  pointer  will  never  see  beyond.  Even  let  him  catch  sight  of 
the  moon,  and  still  he  cannot  see  its  beauty  unless  his  mind  be  innocent  of 
passion  and  commotion.  In  order  to  commune  heart  to  heart  with  the 
cosmos  and  see  its  reality  as  it  is,  he  must  first  free  himself  from  the  inter- 
ference of  special  concern  and  from  the  captivation  of  thought.  His  mind 
should  be  purged  of  such  encumbrances,  like  the  mind  of  one  who  loiters 
in  the  translucent  air  of  night  and  enjoys  the  clear,  serene  moonlight, 

' On  this  point  see  especially  Mrs.  Rhys  Davids’  The  Hymns  of  the  Early  Buddhists. 


5o 


IV.  BUDDHIST  NATURALISM 


calmly  and  freely.  This  is  the  ideal  of  the  Zenist,  to  be  attained  through 
spiritual  exercise  in  meditation.  We  must,  however,  be  careful  in  using  the 
word  meditation  not  to  mistake  it  for  cogitation,  because  the  Zen  j)ractice 
of  meditation  is  not  a mode  of  deliberate  reflection,  not  thinking  in  the 
usual  sense,  but  consists  rather  in  an  evacuation  of  the  mind,  a process 
through  which  alone  we  can  fully  exercise  our  intuitive  insight. 

What,  then,  is  to  be  apprehended  by  that  intuition?  Here  again  our 
common  sense  stumbles  and  our  thought  is  defied.  A great  master  of  Zen 
said:  “ Is  there  obverse  or  reverse  in  transparent  water?  Is  there  inside  or 
outside  in  vacant  space?  There  is  that  which  is  luminous  and  clear,  spon- 
taneous and  disembodied.  Therein  is  no  differentiation  of  forms  and  colors; 
no  antithesis  of  object  and  subject.  [It  is]  one  and  the  same  since  eternily ; 
no  term  to  describe  it,  for  ever.”  ^ This  it  is  that  underlies  our  selves,  our 
souls;  this  is  the  primordial  essence  of  each  and  all  existence.  The  same 
master  says  in  another  passage:  “See  the  high  mountain.  The  summit  is 
hidden;  yet  far  beyond  the  clouds  the  eyes  catch  the  light  by  which  it  is 
illumined.  Look  into  the  deep  ocean.  The  bottom  cannot  be  seen ; yet  the 
depth  can  be  penetrated  without  taking  thought.  Silence  is  eloquent 
enough  to  make  clear  the  -essence ; and  even  while  sitting  in  repose  the 
cosmos  can  be  grasped.  The  whole  being  is  bare  and  apparent;  it  is  that  of 
a colossus  expanding  beyond  measure,  — a giant  without  motion  or  emo- 
tion; no  twilight  can  impede  his  vision,  nor  any  dust  besmirch  his  feet.” 
Such  is  the  true  nature  of  the  condition  which  is  inherent  in  our  own  souls 
and  is  realized  completely  by  the  intuitive  faculty  of  a mind  trained  in  Zen. 

This  kind  of  enigmatic  utterance  may,  however,  confuse  rather  than 
clarify  the  content  of  the  Zen  view.  But  precisely  this  riddle,  which  is  a 
stumbling  block  to  every  one,  is  what  the  Zenists  are  eager  to  attack  and  to 
elucidate  in  their  acts.  The  riddle  of  the  world  and  life  is  not,  they  would 
say,  very  different  from  other  riddles  which,  when  solved,  involve  nothing 
extraordinary  or  amazing  in  itself,  but  always  reveal  simple  truths  plain 
to  everybody.  The  manner  of  solution,  moreover,  is  not  dependent  on 

^ By  Keizan  (i268-i325)  in  his  Zazen  Ydjin  Ki,  or  “What  is  to  be  kept  in  mind  during  the  Zen  session.” 
The  present  translation  hardly  carries  the  “air-rhythm”  of  the  original  Chinese,  which  is  simple  and  terse, 
with  few  conjunctions  or  prepositions. 


PLATE  XXXI 

Shaka.  In  the  style  of  Kano  Utanosuke 


PLATE  XXXI 


Shaka 

In  the  Style  of  Kano  Utanosuke,  i5i3-i575  (?) 
Japanese,  Kano  School 
In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

This  work  of  an  early  Kano  master  represents  the  Buddha 
as  a solitary  recluse,  in  a manner  characteristic  of  the  Zen 
ideals. 

Painted  in  ink  on  paper  and  mounted  as  a kakemono. 


PLATE  XXXII 


White-robed  Kwannon.  By  Kano  Motonobu 


PLATE  XXXII 


White-robed  Kwannon 
By  Kano  Motonobu,  i476-i559 
Japanese,  Kano  School 
In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

The  deity  is  here  shoAvn  wrapt  in  meditation,  in  the  midst 
of  nature,  and  from  the  idea  expressed,  as  well  as  from  its 
manner  of  expression,  an  adequate  conception  may  be  formed 
of  the  way  in  which  conventional  Buddhist  painting  was  com- 
bined with  the  freer  landscape  style,  thus  leading,  by  degrees, 
to  the  secularization  of  Buddhist  art.  In  this  instance  the 
draped  figure  stiU  retains  much  of  the  Buddhist  convention- 
ality, while  the  surrounding  landscape  reflects  the  influence 
of  the  great  Chinese  painters  of  earlier  times. 

Painted  in  colors  on  silk  and  mounted  as  a panel. 


THE  ZEN  PRACTICE  OF  MEDITATION 


5i 

mathematical  calculation  or  logical  thinking,  but  on  intuition  and  sagacity. 
Indeed  deliberation  and  cogitation  are  often  embarrassments  rather  than 
solvents,  and  the  best  plan  is  to  approach  the  enigma  with  an  artless  and 
unfettered  mind.  Whatever  philosophers  may  say,  the  Zenists  try  to  solve 
the  riddle  of  the  universe  in  just  this  way. 

Zen  ^ means  meditation,  and  its  method  consists  in  Zazen,  or  tranquil 
session.  An  older  contemporary  of  the  master  whose  words  I have  already 
quoted  gives  instructions  ^ for  this  practice  as  follows:  “Arrange  a seat  of 
matting  at  a suitable  place  and  lay  a cushion  upon  it.  Then  sit  down  cross- 
legged,  placing  the  right  foot  upon  the  left  thigh  and  the  left  foot  upon  the 
right  thigh.  Put  on  robes  and  a girdle  not  too  tight  and  preserve  their  sym- 
metry. Then  put  the  right  hand  (palm  upward)  on  the  calf  of  the  left  leg, 
lay  the  back  of  the  left  hand  upon  the  palm  of  the  right  hand,  and  let  the 
tips  of  the  two  thumbs  touch  each  other.  Sit  thus,  keeping  the  body  erect, 
inclining  neither  to  the  right  nor  to  the  left,  bending  neither  forward  nor 
backward.  Let  the  ears  be  just  above  the  shoulders  and  the  nose  be 
directed  toward  the  abdomen.  Lay  the  tongue  against  the  roof  of  the  mouth 
and  keep  the  lips  and  teeth  closed.  The  eyes  should  be  kept  open;  the 
breath  should  flow  gently  through  the  nostrils.  When  the  bodily  position 
is  thus  established,  exhale  a deep  breath;  then  remain  seated  after  (having 
examined  the  posture  by)  swinging  the  body  slightly  to  the  right  and  left. 
Thereafter  proceed  to  the  contemplation  of  what  is  beyond  thought.”  The 
effect  of  this  posture  upon  the  mind  may  be  tested  even  in  sitting  on  a 
chair.  In  any  case  the  point  is  to  maintain  tranquillity  of  mind  and  to 
reach  a depth  of  introspection  beyond  the  disturbance  of  outside  bustle  or 
mental  commotion.  To  describe  this  condition  is  an  impossibility,  but  from 
what  I have  said  it  can  be  seen  that  Zen  is  a method  of  quietism. 

Suppose,  then,  that  the  mind  has  attained  this  ideal  state  of  repose,  — 
that  it  is  quieted,  poised,  liberated,  so  to  speak,  — what  would  be  the  view 
of  life  and  the  world  seen  in  that  condition?  The  Zenist  looks  down  from 

' The  word  Zen  is  the  Japanese  abbreviation  of  the  Chinese  Ch'an-no  which  was  pronounced  in  old 
Chinese  something  like  Janna  and  was  adopted  as  the  transliteration  of  the  Sanskrit  Dhydna  and  the 
Pali  Jhana. 

^ Dogen  (i 200-53),  in  his  Fukwan  Zazen  Gi,  or  “Admonition  to  all  in  the  practice  of  the  Tranquil 
Session.” 


52 


IV.  BUDDHIST  NATURALISM 


his  eminence  upon  human  activities,  as  if  houses  and  farms,  men  and 
horses,  together  constituted  some  miniature  landscape  with  its  life  and 
movement.^  He  has  no  concern  whatever  as  to  whether  the  farms  are 
fertile,  or  as  to  who  is  gaining  or  losing.  His  mind,  finding  unbroken  quiet 
deep  in  the  heart  of  nature,  perceives  the  motion  and  the  change  in  things 
as  fleet  expressions  stirring,  perhaps,  the  profound  repose  of  nature’s  face. 
In  the  world  many  are  born  and  many  die;  the  years  roll  on,  the  seasons 
follow  one  after  another;  leaves  bud  out  green  and  wither,  flowers  bloom 
and  are  scattered.  Let  them  come  and  go  as  they  may;  the  Zenist  observes 
it  all  in  cool  composure,  though  not  in  stupid  indifference.  What  interests 
him  is  the  calmly  flowing  aspect  of  this  perpetual  change,  or,  more  properly, 
the  eternal  tranquillity  seen  through  and  behind  the  changes.  In  his  sight, 
the  beauty  and  grandeur  of  a waterfall  consist  in  its  motion  as  a whole, 
— not  in  the  movement  of  particular  drops  and  bubbles ; and  it  was  this 
motion  that  the  Zenist  enjoyed  as  a symbol  of  the  general,  everlasting  flow 
of  nature.  The  world  he  sees  — like  the  landscapes  painted  by  Sesshu  — 
is  without  dazzling  color  and  vivid  movement.  Through  his  mind  all 
phenomena  are  drawn  into  that  quiet  abyss  of  the  spiritual  ocean  where 
there  are  neither  waves  nor  whirlpools,  and  where  the  individual  coalesces 
with  the  vast  expanse  of  nature  and  with  the  unchangeable  continuity  of 
the  universe.  In  short,  Zen  is  a naturalism  which  defies  the  lure  of  human 
activities  and  absorbs  nature  and  life  into  the  all-embracing  tranquillity 
of  the  mind  identified  with  the  cosmos. 

There  is  still  another  feature  of  Zen  which  assumes  great  significance  in 
relation  not  only  to  moral  life,  but  also  to  aesthetic  expression.  That 
feature  is  individuahsm.  The  Zen  enlightenment  is  a highly  refined  abstrac- 
tion. This  abstraction  is  not,  however,  a mere  negation  of  the  concrete 
or  a teaching  of  nothingness,  but  a transcendent  view  of  the  world.  Its 
attainment  consists  in  detachment  from  commotion  and  in  steadfastness 
amid  surrounding  changes.  The  mind  of  a Zenist  may  be  compared  with  a 
rock  upstanding  from  the  depths  of  the  sea,  resisting  and  defying  the  per- 
petual movement  of  the  waves;  it  is  also  like  the  pure  moonlight,  some- 

* Similarly  expressed  by  Maeterlinck  in  his  La  Sagesse  el  la  Deslinee. 


ZEN  ART 


53 


times  obscured  by  clouds,  yet  never  losing  its  purity  or  its  power  of 
beautifying  whatever  it  illuminates.^  Strength  to  meet  weal  and  woe 
equally,  to  enjoy  life  and  nature  in  absolute  composure  and  lofty  calmness, 
— such  is  the  aim  of  the  Zen  practice. 

“The  soul  which  is  not  moved, 

The  soul  which  with  a strong  and  constant  calm 
Takes  sorrow  and  takes  joy  indifferently, 

Lives  in  the  life  undying.”  ^ 

Determination  bordering  on  stubbornness,  tranquillity  akin  to  apathy, 
self-continence  mistakable  for  indifference,  — therein  were  manifested  the 
results  of  the  individualistic  culture  of  Zen. 

As  a method  of  achieving  a union  of  the  individual  soul  with  the  cosmic 
spirit,  Zen  training  manifested  itself  in  art  of  a transcendental  kind.  Nat- 
uralism and  intuitionism  enabled  the  Zenist  not  only  to  absorb  the  serenely 
transient  beauty  of  nature,  but  also  to  express  it,  distinct  from  human 
passions  and  interests,  in  placid  dignity  and  pure  simplicity;  while  indi- 
vidualism, a necessary  consequence  of  Zen  practice,  found  expression  in  a 
vigor  and  freshness  of  artistic  treatment  implying  always  a touch  of  orig- 
inal genius.  Thus  the  aesthetic  sense  developed  by  the  culture  consisted 
essentially  in  disinterested  observation  and  penetrating  insight  which  pro- 
duced a feeling  of  intimacy  with  the  universe  and  caused  man  to  mould 
his  life  and  taste  in  accordance  with  the  “air-rhythm”  of  nature.  Since, 
however,  high  attainment  in  Zen  was  limited  to  a few  men  of  indefatigable 
persistence,  the  best  products  of  its  art  showed  an  intellectual  loftiness  sug- 
gestive of  aristocracy.  Yet  its  influence  pervaded  the  lives  of  the  people 
and  moulded  their  perceptions  in  every  branch  of  art,  — in  the  composi- 
tion of  poems,  the  building  of  houses  and  furnishing  of  rooms;  in  methods 
of  flower  arrangement,  of  gardening,  and  even  of  preparing  and  drinking 
tea.  Indeed,  there  is  in  Japan  hardly  a form  of  thought  or  activity  that 

‘ Herein  lies  the  reason  why  Zenists  often  name  themselves  in  terms  of  nature,  as:  Scattered-Stone, 
Thousand-Stone,  Oak-Shade,  Cloud-Peak,  Lake-Heart,  Heart-Moon,  Moon-Valley,  Cloud-Hock,  Rugged- 
Precipice,  Without-Cloud,  etc.  The  name  of  the  famous  Sesshu  means  Snow-Boat,  and  there  are  still 
others  of  a contradictory  turn,  such  as  Silent-Thunder,  Stone-Water,  etc. 

* Edwin  Arnold,  in  The  Song  Celestial. 


54 


IV.  BUDDHIST  NATURALISM 


Zen  has  not  touched  and  inspired  with  its  ideal  of  simple  beauty.  Music 
and  sculpture  may,  perhaps,  be  counted  exceptions  to  this  rule,  probably 
because  to  a Zenist  music  was  too  charming  and  sculpture  too  corporeal. 
There  was,  however,  a taste  for  lifelike  representations  of  ideal  Zenists,^ 
which  caused  some,  though  not  many,  portraits  to  be  executed  in  sculp- 
ture. There  was,  too,  a special  kind  of  bamboo  flute,  called  shaku-hachi, 
in  use  among  groups  of  wandering  Zen  monks,  known  as  Komu-sd,  or 
“Vacuity  Friars.”  The  instrument  emits  subdued  tones  whose  effect  is 
more  suggestive  of  inward  absorption  than  of  sentimental  expression,  and 
is  thought  to  be  in  sympathy  with  the  hidden  rhythm  of  tlie  cosmic  soul. 
But  after  all,  the  strongest  artistic  expression  of  Zen  was  painting,  espe- 
cially in  black  and  white. 

The  Zen  painters  drew  both  landscapes  and  figures.  There  are  pictures 
of  Buddha  and  his  disciples,  of  various  deities  and  of  the  patriarchs,  which 
were  painted,  not  as  likenesses  of  individuals  ^ but  as  types  representing  the 
Zenist’s  ideal  of  enlightenment  personified.  All  deities  are  deprived  of  their 
traditional  glories  and  decorations,  of  their  golden  light  and  brilliant 
colors,  and  appear  simply  as  human  figures,  semi-naked  or  clad  in  white 
robes,  abiding  in  the  midst  of  nature.  Buddha  may  be  shown  under  a tree 
or  among  clouds,  surrounded  by  his  disciples.  Here  the  original  idea  of 
communion  is  preserved,  but  the  master  no  longer  preaches  to  his  hearers 
or  manifests  his  supernatural  body;  he  simply  suggests  a question,  as  by 
holding  up  a flower,  and  leaves  the  solution  to  the  by-standers.  The  ser- 
mon is  given  in  silence,  and  communion  with  the  invisible  hearers  is  tacitly 
established.  He,  or  one  of  his  disciples,  is  painted  also  as  a solitary  recluse, 
sitting  in  meditation,  or  standing  wrapt  in  thought,  or  perhaps  wandering 
from  nowhere  to  nowhere  (Plate  XXXI). 

Reproduced  in  Plate  XXXII  is  a picture  of  a lady  dressed  in  pure 
white  and  seated  on  a rock  by  the  waterside.  She  seems  to  look  at  the  vast 

' Due  rather  to  the  pious  memory,  verging  on  filial  affection,  in  which  Zenists  held  their  masters,  than 
to  the  individualistic  character  of  Zen. 

^ The  painting  of  Bodhidharma  (Plate  XXX)  illustrates,  however,  a class  of  Zen  portraits  in  which 
individual  firmness  of  character  and  tranquillity  of  mind  are  clearly  indicated.  The  connection  of  Zen 
training  with  the  military  life  of  Japan  also  helped  to  develop  portrait  painting,  in  which  the  vigorous 
character  of  Zenist  warriors  was  powerfully  depicted. 


PLATE  XXXIII 


Kwannon.  In  the  style  of  Sesshu 


PLATE  XXXIII 


Kwannon 

In  the  Style  of  Sesshu,  i42o-i5o6 
Japanese,  Ashikaga  Idealistic  School 
In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

Here  the  deity  appears  in  feminine  form,  absorbed  in 
meditation  and  seated  on  the  back  of  a dragon. 

Painted  in  ink  and  traces  of  color  on  paper  and  mounted 
as  a kakemono. 


PLATE  XXXIV 


Monju.  By  Kano  Tanyo 


PLATE  XXXIV 


Monju 

By  Kano  Tanyo,  Eighteenth  Century 
Japanese,  Kano  School 
In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

The  deity  is  here  shown  in  senh-worldly  guise  as  a young 
prince.  The  picture,  though  sufficiently  typical  of  its  kind, 
is  weak  in  execution,  and  is  reproduced  here  merely  as  an 
illustration  of  the  secularized  Buddhist  motive. 

Painted  in  colors  on  silk  and  mounted  as  a kakemono. 


l«l 


PLATE  XXXV 


Monju.  By  Hosetsu 


PLATE  XXXV 


Monju 

By  Hosetsu,  Fifteenth  Century 
Japanese,  Ashikaga  Idealistic  School 
In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

In  this  characteristic  Zen  work,  the  deity  is  simply  shown 
as  an  old  man  seated  on  the  back  of  his  familiar  lion. 
Painted  in  ink  on  paper  and  mounted  as  a kakemono. 


PLATE  XXXVI 


The  Arhant  {Rakan)  Ananda  Feeding  a Hungry  Ghost 
By  Chou  Chi-chang  {Shu-kijo)  and  Lin  T‘ing-kuei  {Rin-teikei) 


PLATE  XXXVI 


The  Arhant  (Rakan)  Ananda  Feeding  a Hungry  Ghost 
By  Chou  Chi-chang  (Shu-kijo)  and  Lin  T‘ing-kuei  (Rin-leikei) 
Chinese,  Twelfth  Century 

In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

This  story  of  Ananda  is  told  in  a Chinese  Buddhist  text  and 
is  said  to  have  originated  the  Buddhist  custom  of  offering 
food  to  invisible  spirits. 

The  painting  is  one  of  a set  of  one  hundred  pictures  repre- 
senting the  Five  Hundred  Arhant,  executed  in  1178  at  Ming 
Chao,  for  a pious  dedication. 

Painted  in  colors  on  silk,  and  mounted  as  a panel. 


PLATE  XXXVII 


The  Arhant  (Rakan)  Darbha  Malli-putra  ascending  to  the  Sky 
By  Chou  Chi-chang  {ShD-kijo)  and  Lin  T‘ing-kuei  {Rin-teikei) 


PLATE  XXXVII 


The  Arhant  (Rakan)  Darbha  AIalli-putra  ascending 

TO  THE  Sky  in  Contemplation  of  Water  and  Fire 

By  Chou  Chi-chang  (Shu-kijo)  and  Lin  T‘ing-kuei  (Rin-teikei) 
Chinese,  Twelfth  Century 

In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

For  the  story  of  Darbha  (Pali,  Dabha),  see  Albert  J.  Ed- 
munds, Buddhist  and  Christian  Gospels  (Philadelphia,  1909), 
vol.  II,  pp.  17/1-75. 

The  painting  is  one  of  a set  of  one  hundred  pictures  repre- 
senting the  Five  Hundred  Arhant,  executed  in  1178  at  Ming 
Chao,  for  a pious  dedication. 

Painted  in  colors  on  silk  and  mounted  as  a panel. 


X 


ZEN  ART 


55 


expanse  of  water,  or  possibly  she  hears  the  melodies  of  the  breeze  singing 
through  the  trees  overhead.  This  is  a manifestation  of  the  goddess  of 
mercy,  Kwannon,  to  whom,  under  a very  different  aspect,  I have  already 
referred.^  The  same  deity  is  often  shown,  too,  sitting  on  a dragon  among 
clouds  (Plate  XXXIII),  or  standing  with  a branch  of  willow  in  one  hand, 
— seeming  to  be  in  possession  of  the  great  power  of  nature,  or  merely  to 
loiter  in  the  open  country,  — whether  with  the  object  of  enjoying  the 
grandeur  and  calmness  about  her  or  of  helping  others  to  a similar  enjoy- 
ment, may  be  left  to  the  decision  of  the  onlooker.  In  like  manner,  Monju, 
god  of  wisdom,  is  represented  as  a lovely  boy  reading  a scroll,  while  his 
lion  plays  near  by  (Plate  XXXIV),  or  as  a weird  old  man  seated  on  a lion 
(Plate  XXXV);  and  Fugen,  another  god  of  wisdom,  appears  as  a simple 
youth  or  as  a young  woman  riding  on  an  elephant.  Such  pictures  are  not 
meant  to  be  worshipped,  but  to  give  pleasure,  — the  pleasure  of  serene 
composure,  of  pure  simplicity,  of  the  beauty  of  slender  human  figures. 

Buddha’s  disciples,  the  Rakan,~  are  often  represented  in  a group  against 
a background  of  mountain  scenery,  each  of  them  enjoying,  silently  and  by 
himself,  the  spectacle  of  nature  presented  to  his  illumined  mind  (Plates 
XXXVI  and  XXXVII).  These  pictures  of  the  Rakan  are  akin  in  spirit 
and  delineation  to  those  of  the  Taoist  hermits  and  sages,  called  in  Chinese, 
Hsien,^  or  “ ]\Ien  of  the  Mountains  ” ; and  here  let  me  say  a word  about  the 
connection  between  Zen  and  Taoism.  “The  wind.  Nature’s  flute,  sweeping 
across  trees  and  waters,  sings  many  melodies.  Even  so,  the  Tao,  the  great 
Mood,  expresses  Itself  through  different  minds  and  ages  yet  remains  ever 
Itself.’’^  This  saying  of  a great  Taoist  master  expresses  the  mood  of  the 
Taoist  culture,  whose  purpose,  like  that  of  Zen,  was  to  overcome  worldly 
troubles  and  find  an  everlasting  repose  in  the  calm  enjoyment  of  nature. 
Such  ideas,  fostered  and  developed  among  the  Chinese  of  the  Yang-tzii 
Valley,  manifested  their  influence  not  only  in  a naturalism  which  involved 

• See  Plates  VII,  XIX  and  XX  A,  B & C. 

2 Sanskrit,  Arhant,  which  originally  meant  “the  venerable”;  but  the  Chinese  Lo-han,  or  its  Japanese 
equivalent,  'Rakan,  is  associated  with  the  men  “emancipated”  or  living  out  of  the  world. 

® Japanese,  Sennin. 

* Quoted  from  Chuang  Tzu  by  Okakura,  in  The  Ideals  of  the  East,  p.  46.  See  further  pages  4o-6o  of  the 
same  book.  Tao  literally  means  “The  Way,”  not  in  an  ethical  sense  but  something  like  Jakob  Biihine’s 
Urgrund. 


56 


IV.  BUDDHIST  NATURALISM 


an  almost  misanthropic  abandonment  of  the  worldly  life,  but  also  in  an 
individualism  exemplified  in  the  persons  of  many  hermits  who,  seeking  tlie 
seclusion  of  forest,  hill  and  stream,  remote  from  human  abode,  indulged  in 
“pure  conversation”  among  themselves,  or  expressed  their  feeling  for 
nature  in  poems  of  simple  motive;  and,  immersed  in  these  pursuits,  sur- 
vived to  ages  far  beyond  the  lot  of  ordinary  mortals  (Plate  XXXVI II). 
This  culture,  or  rather  inspired  unculture,  is  what  I have  already  jiointed 
out  as  the  associate  of  Zen  in  southern  China,  and  in  many  cases  a Zenist 
and  a Taoist  cannot  be  distinguished. 

The  “Men  of  the  Mountains”  depicted  by  Zen  painters  are  taken  from 
the  semi-legendary  poets,  hermits  and  sages  of  Taoism,  whose  sentiment 
toward  nature  has,  in  this  way,  permeated  the  art  and  life  of  the  Japanese, 
especially  since  the  fourteenth  century.  As  represented  in  the  pictures, 
one  or  more  of  these  Immortals  may  exhibit  the  weird  art  of  floating 
through  the  sky;  another  projects  his  own  image  from  his  mouth;  another 
causes  a horse  to  come  out  of  a gourd.  Yet  they  were  admired  not  as  mere 
magicians  but  as  embodiments  of  the  attainment  in  Zen  through  which  an 
adept  could  spiritually  perform  similar  feats,  such  as  the  act  of  “inhaling 
and  exhaling  the  whole  universe  at  one  breath,”  as  it  is  called.  They  were 
not  supernatural  men;  on  the  contreu'y  the  “Men  of  the  Mountains”  were 
children  of  nature,  and  are  shown  amusing  themselves  in  nature.  Plates 
XXXIX  and  XL  depict  two  such  beings,  Chinese  poets  of  the  seventh 
century.  The  one,  Han-Shan,^  or  “ Cool-Hill,”  has  a blank  scroll,  implying 
that  he  reads  the  unwritten  book  of  nature.  The  other,  Shih-Te,^  or 
“Picking-up,”  holds  a broom, — the  broom  of  insight,  of  wisdom,  of  tran- 
scendence, — with  which  to  brush  away  all  the  dusts  of  worry  and  trouble. 
To  read  the  book  of  nature;  that  is  the  ideal  of  Zen  naturalism  and  intu- 
itionism ; to  sweep  off  all  troubles : that  is  the  motto  of  Zen  individualism 
and  transcendentalism. 

In  addition  to  such  themes  the  Zen  artists  were  extremely  fond  of  peunt- 
ing  landscapes.  Of  these,  one  specimen  has  been  described,  and  all  others 
(Plates  XLI  and  XLII)  are  similar  in  feeling,  although,  of  course,  there 
is  great  variety  among  them  in  composition  and  in  the  scenes  repre- 

* Japanese,  Kanzan.  ^ Japanese,  Jiltokii. 


PLATE  XXXVIII 

The  Three  Laughers  of  Hu-hsi  {Kokei).  By  Soga  Shohaku 


PLATE  XXXVIII 


The  Three  Laughers  of  Hu-hsi  {Kokei) 

By  Soga  Shohaku,  lySo-SS 
Japanese,  Post-Ashikaga  Idealistic  School 

In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

The  social  disintegration  which  characterized  the  fourlli 
and  fifth  centuries  in  China  had  the  effect  of  causing  many 
able  men  to  turn  their  backs  upon  the  world  and  seek  the* 
seclusion  of  the  mountains,  where  they  lived  immersed  in 
their  own  pursuits.  In  the  time  of  Hsiao  Wu  (SvS-gC),  tenth 
Emperor  of  the  Eastern  Chin  dynasty,  there  lived  in  Mount  Lu 
(Ro-san)  a priest  named  Hui  Yiian  {E-on)  who  for  thirty  years 
had  fulfilled  a vow  never  to  cross  the  little  bridge  which  con- 
nected his  retreat  in  Hu-hsi  {Tiger  Dale)  with  the  road  lead- 
ing J.o  the  world  he  had  quitted.  On  one  occasion,  however, 
when  his  best  friends,  T‘ao  Yiian-ming  {To  Enmei)  and  Lu 
Hsiu-ching  {Riku  Shusei),  had  been  visiting  him  and  he  went 
to  see  them  off,  the  three  were  so  absorbed  in  merry  talk  that 
the  monk  unconsciously  crossed  the  bridge.  Having  become 
aware  of  this  they  stopped  and  laughed  together.  This  story 
is  frequently  taken  as  a theme  of  Zen  painting  to  illustrate, 
in  part,  the  mood  of  hermit  life ; and  the  sympathy  with  which 
it  is  depicted  in  the  present  instance  may  be  attributed  to  the 
fact  that  the  artist,  a man  of  undoubted  genius,  being  con- 
temptuous of  the  degenerate  art  of  his  time,  and  ambitious  to 
revive  the  vigorous  style  of  the  fifteenth  century,  was  so  ridi- 
culed by  his  contemporaries  that  he  retired  into  solitude,  even 
as  Hui  Yiian  had  done  before  him. 

Painted  in  ink  on  paper  and  mounted  as  a two-fold  screen. 


PLATE  XXXIX 

Han  Shan  {Kanzan)  and  Shih-Te  {Jittoku) 


PLATE  XXX  TX 


Han-Shan  (Kanzan)  and  Shih-Te  {Jitloku) 

Artist  unknown 

Japanese,  Late  Fifteenth  Century 

In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

The  two  Chinese  poet-hermits  are  here  depicted  in  a man- 
ner thoroughly  characteristic  of  the  idealistic  Zen  painters  of 
Ashikaga  times.  The  inscription  above  is  by  Sonan  (i4o.V 
89),  a Zen  monk,  known  also  as  Ryogen.  It  is  written  from 
left  to  right  and  reads  as  follows:  “When  these  two  met  they 
could  not  refrain  from  smiling  at  each  other.  One  sometimes 
ceu’ried  a scroll  in  his  hand,  and  the  other  gazed  at  the  moon, 
— pointing  her  out.  But  see,  in  the  west  stands  Mount  0-mei 
(Lofty  Eyebrows)  — in  the  north,  Wu-t‘ai  (Five  Terraces), 
and  it  is  now  ten  years  since  these  two  poets  departed  thither.” 
Painted  in  ink  on  paper  and  mounted  as  a kakemono. 


fl»w 


PLATE  XL 

Shih-Te  {JiTioKu).  By  Gei-ami 


PLATE  XL 


Shih-Te  (Jiltoku) 

By  Gei-ami,  Fifteenth  Century 
Japanese,  Ashikaga  Idealistic  School 
In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

The  recluse  poet  is  here  shown  smiling  at  the  moon, 
besom  lies  on  the  ground  at  his  feet. 

Painted  in  ink  on  paper  and  mounted  as  a kakemono. 


PLATE  XLI 


A Chinese  Landscape.  In  the  style  of  Soga  Shubun 


PLATE  XLI 


A Chinese  Landscape 

In  the  Style  of  Soga  Shubun,  Early  Fifteenth  Century 
Japanese,  Ashikaga  Idealistic  School 
In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

The  descriptive  poem  at  the  top  of  the  picture  is  by  the 
Zen  monk  Ryutaku  Ten-in,  commonly  known  as  Moku-un, 
and  is  dated  in  the  early  summer  of  i5oo,  — the  year  in  which 
the  poet  died  at  the  age  of  seventy-nine.  It  says:  — 

Waking  from  an  afternoon  doze,  he  opens  the  lattice  giving  on  the  river 
bank. 

Behold  the  violet  hills  reflected  in  the  blue  expanse  of  water! 

From  above  heaven  looks  down,  as  though  in  pity,  on  the  solitary  man; 
And  below  on  the  sandy  beach,  a pair  of  water  birds  has  come  to  rest. 

Painted  in  ink  on  paper  and  mounted  as  a kakemono. 


PLATE  XLII 


A Chinese  Landscape.  By  Josetsu 


I 


PLATE  XLII 


A Chinese  Landscape 
By  Josetsu,  Early  Fifteenth  Century 
Japanese,  Ashikaga  Idealistic  School 
In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

Painted  in  ink  on  paper  and  mounted  as  a kakemono. 


ZEN  ART 


5? 

sented.  The  grandeur  or  tranquillity  of  nature  seen  through  the  spiritual 
eyes  of  one  purified  by  long  training  in  Zen;  the  changes  of  life  and  season 
absorbed  into  the  calm  depth  of  contemplation;  — such  impressions  the 
painter  strove  to  catch  with  simple,  bold  strokes  of  his  brush  and  with 
little  color.  Distant  hills  like  shadows ; water  marked  out  by  a few  ripples ; 
sails  and  boats  just  dotted  in;  rocks  and  trees  drawn  with  a few  touches; 
these  make  up  a landscape.  Human  figures  are  often  added  to  the  scene, 
and  appear  to  be  gazing  beyond  the  expanse  of  water,  or  loitering  in  the 
moonlight,  or  looking  up  at  the  cliffs  and  waterfalls.  They  are  meant  to  be 
Taoists  or  Zenists  whose  presence  in  the  picture  shows  that  they  are  seeing 
the  view  as  reflected  in  their  purified  minds. 

This  point  brings  us  to  the  connection  between  painting  and  poetry  in 
Zen  art.  To  the  fact  that  Chinese  characters  — the  written  symbols 
developed  in  China  and  later  adopted  in  Japan  — were  originally  pictures 
representing  objects,  conditions  and  abstract  ideas,  may  be  attributed  the 
ancient  regard  for  drawing  and  writing  as  correlated  arts  of  equal  impor- 
tance, both  of  them  executed  with  the  same  breadth  and  flexibility  of  line, 
and  by  means  of  the  same  implement.  But  it  was  the  Zenists  who  intensi- 
fied this  calligraphic  affinity  by  expressing  their  characteristic  sense  of 
nature  in  combinations  of  painting  and  poetry.  Thus  a Zen  monk  would 
compose  a poem  like  this:  “The  world  is  suffused  with  the  pure  moon- 
light; no  cloud  nor  dust  is  in  the  sky.  The  vast  expanse  of  water  reflects 
the  heavenly  rays;  and,  far  beyond,  distant  hills  appear  as  in  a dream.  The 
pines  on  the  beach  sing  the  music  of  the  calm  night ; and  I ^ stand  here,  my 
mind  absorbed  into  the  sky  and  water,  — melted  into  the  one  serene  pale- 
ness.” Then,  under  a calligraphic  writing  of  this  poem,  the  scene  will  be 
depicted  with  the  same  ink  and  brush  and  in  kindred  strokes.  For  example, 
among  the  writings  mounted  on  the  landscape  of  Sesshu  (Plate  XXIX), 
there  is  a poem  to  the  following  effect : — 

“ Is  water  identical  with  waves? 

No,  but  the  mind,  that  is  like  water! 

Clouds  gather  in  the  valley  and  disperse  again. 

Whither  the  mind  alone  can  follow.” 

* A Zenist  would  object  to  the  personal  pronouns  “I”  and  “my,”  because  to  lose  one’s  self  in  nature 
is  essential  from  his  point  of  view. 


58 


IV.  BUDDHIST  NATURA.LISM 


Such  is  the  usual  device  of  the  Zenist  poet  and  painter  united  in  one  person, 
and  in  this  association  of  poetry  and  painting  he  exhibited  again  the  fusion 
of  mind  and  nature. 

Animal  life  is  sometimes  touched  by  the  Zen  artists,  the  dragon  and  the 
tiger  being  their  favorites.  The  tiger  glares  at  the  sky  where  tlie  dragon  is 
partly  seen  amid  the  dark  clouds  (Plates  XLIII  A & XLIII  B).  Tlie 
earthly  beast  roars  and  the  air  whirls;  the  heavenly  serpent  mounts  upward 
through  the  vapors  which  crowd  about  him.  In  the  one  was  seen  a power 
which  could  shake  hills  and  rocks;  in  the  other  a power  ruling  the  air  and 
heaven.  Which  would  control  the  other.!'  “Have  you  seen  tlie  dragon?” 
wrote  Mr.  Okakura.^  “Approach  him  cautiously,  for  no  mortal  can  sur- 
vive the  sight  of  his  entire  body.  The  Eastern  dragon  is  not  the  gruesome 
monster  of  mediaeval  imagination,  but  the  genius  of  strength  and  goodness. 
He  is  the  spirit  of  change,  therefore  of  life  itself.  . . . Hidden  in  the  cav- 
erns of  inaccessible  mountains,  or  coiled  in  the  unfathomed  depth  of  the 
sea,  he  awaits  the  time  when  he  slowly  rouses  himself  into  activity.  He 
unfolds  himself  in  the  storm  clouds;  he  washes  his  mane  in  the  blackness 
of  the  seething  whirlpools.  His  claws  are  in  the  fork  of  the  lightning,  his 
scales  begin  to  glisten  in  the  bark  of  rain-swept  pine  trees.  His  voice  is 
heard  in  the  hurricane  which,  scattering  the  withered  leaves  of  the  forest, 
quickens  a new  spring.  The  dragon  reveals  himself  only  to  vanish.”  In 
this  contending  pair  the  Zenists  saw  a graphic  representation  of  the  all- 
controlling forces  which  break  down  terrestrial  distinctions  and  fuse 
together  heaven  and  earth.  This,  as  an  aspect  of  their  world  view,  is  in- 
herent in  their  practice  of  contemplation,  which  enabled  them,  as  they 
believed,  to  pull  down  the  stars  and  uplift  the  mountains,  — but  all  spirit- 
ually and  ideally. 

I have  now  arrived  at  the  stage  in  my  exposition  where  I can  point  out 
definitely  the  final  steps  in  the  secularization  of  Zen  art.  The  dragon  and 
tiger  may  be  tamed,  both  in  the  mind  of  a Zenist  and  by  the  brush  of  a 
painter.  They  may  easily  be  made  to  serve  a decorative  purpose,  and 

1 Okakura,  The  Awakening  of  Japan,  pp.  77-78. 


PLATES  XLIII  A,  XLIII  B 

Dragon  and  Tiger.  By  Hasegawa  Tohaku 


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PLATE  XLIV 


A Travesty  on  Fugen.  By  Katsukawa  Shunsho 


PLATE  XLIV 


A Travesty  on  Fugen 
By  Katsukawa  Shunsh5  (1726-92) 

Japanese,  Ukiyo-e  School 
In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

The  deity  is  represented  as  a courtesan  mounted  on  an  ele- 
phant standing  among  clouds  which  arise  from  incense  said  to 
be  endowed  with  the  magic  power  of  revealing  to  any  man  the 
image  of  his  dead  or  ideal  beloved.  Above  is  a didactic  inscrip- 
tion by  Kat5  Chikage  (1735-1806),  a scholar  in  the  Japanese 
classics.  It  alludes  to  the  Buddhist  doctrine  of  non-attach- 
ment, and  is  intended  as  a comment  on  the  picture  from  that 
point  of  view,  inasmuch  as  Fugen  is  the  god  of  wisdom  who 
dispels  the  illusion  of  vain  attachment.  It  says:  “ Sometimes, 
allured  by  beauty  one  feels  passionate  attachment  (to  a wo- 
man) ; sometimes,  attracted  by  a voice,  one  becomes  ensnared 
in  love,  which,  being  pondered  in  the  mind  and  expressed  by 
the  mouth,  intensifies  illusory  ideas.  Indeed,  all  men  are 
charmed  by  the  objects  of  the  senses,  and  commit  sins  by 
the  organs.  Thus  the  soul  is  deluded  by  what  is  seen  or 
heard.”  This  is  a weak  echo  of  Buddhist  teaching,  written  in 
a pleasure-loving  age  and  added  to  a picture  of  entirely 
worldly  motive. 

Painted  in  colors  on  silk  and  mounted  as  a kakemono. 


PLATE  XLV 

A Travesty  on  Han-Shan  (Kanzan)  and  Shih-Te  {Jittoku) 
By  Katsukawa  Shunsh5 


PLATE  XLV 


A Travesty  on  Han-Shan  (Kanzan)  and 
Shih-Te  {Jitioku) 

By  Katsukawa  Shunsho  (1726-92) 

Japanese,  Ukiyo-e  School 
In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

The  two  poet-hermits  are  here  represented  as  women:  one 
reading  a love-letter  instead  of  the  blank  scroll  peculiar  to 
Han-Shan;  the  other  holding  an  ordinary  indoor  broom  in- 
stead of  the  besom  carried  by  Shih-Te. 

Painted  in  colors  on  silk  and  mounted  as  a kakemono. 


THE  SECULARIZATION  OF  ZEN  ART 


5g 


indeed  the  Zen  temples  show  various  examples  of  dragons  so  used.  More- 
over, a Zen  landscape  may  be  enjoyed  by  any  man,  if  not  exactly  in  the 
spirit  in  which  it  was  painted,  then  simply  as  a picture  of  nature’s  beauty. 
Representations  of  the  saints,  hermits  and  deities  may  be  regarded  as  mere 
human  figures  in  interesting,  if  not  weird,  postures,  and  may  attract  many 
art  lovers,  almost  apart  from  the  associated  stories  of  attainment  in  Zen 
enlightenment.  Thus  it  was  only  one  step  from  this  idealistic  art  to  a 
romantic  art  and  thence  to  an  art  of  realistic  motive.  The  landscape  of 
Zen  painting  became  a strong  incentive  to,  and  model  for,  the  secular 
landscape  and  was  further  applied  to  decorative  art.  The  human  figures  of 
manifold  attitudes  were  transformed  to  the  uses  of  worldly  life.  A tempo- 
ral form  of  the  god  of  wisdom  has  already  been  referred  to  (Plate  XXXIV), 
and  I can  add  many  other  examples  of  similar  sort,  such  as  Daruma 
soothed  by  a woman,  or  the  Rakan  at  play.  These  are  cases  in  which  a 
secularization  of  Ruddhist  art  is  indeed  apparent;  but  the  process  was 
carried  so  far  by  the  later  genre  painters  that  Fugen  came  to  be  represented 
as  a courtesan  reading  a love-letter  (Plate  XLIV),  and  Kwannon  as  a 
maid  coming  from  the  market  with  her  basket  of  fish.^  Such  pictures  are 
manifest  instances  of  sacrilege  against  the  Zen  ideal  (Plate  XLV) ; but 
on  the  other  hand  there  was  a more  serious  secularization  which,  though 
worldly  in  content,  nevertheless  retained,  in  composition  and  brush 
strokes,  the  “wind-frame”  of  Zen  painting.  In  Japan  this  is  first  notice- 
able among  works  by  Kano  Masanobu  (died  lAgo?)  and  his  son  Motonobu 
(i47^i55g),  and  has  been  perpetuated  by  their  descendants  of  the  Kano 
Academy,  an  idealistic  school  with  strong  romantic  tendencies.  Another 
movement  in  the  same  direction  was  the  purely  decorative  school  of  paint- 
ing and  lacquer  work  which  derived  much  of  its  inspiration  and  method 
from  the  mediaeval  genre,  and  found  immortality  in  the  masterpieces  of 
Koetsu  (1556-1687)  Korin  (1658-1716).  This,  however,  is  not  the 
place  for  a detailed  account  of  these  two  schools,  whose  influence  is  still  a 

* This  kind  of  simplifying  and  secularization  had  been  in  vogue  in  China  since  the  twelfth  century,  and 
so  long  as  it  retained  the  technique  of  simple  ink  drawing  it  was  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  Zen.  But 
when  the  figure  was  adapted  to  genre  painting  and  filled  in  with  decorative  coloring,  it  became  totally 
profane.  The  legend  of  Fugen  appearing  as  a courtesan  in  order  to  convert  her  suitors  to  religion  is  pretty 
old,  and  the  inscription  shown  in  Plate  XLIV  retains  a trace  of  the  old  legend. 


6o 


IV.  BUDDHIST  NATURALISM 


formative  factor  in  Japanese  art;  ^ but  it  is  important  to  observe  that  they 
expressed  what  may  be  called  the  naturalization  of  Zen  art  in  Japan,  or  in 
other  words  the  encroachment,  on  Zen  idealism,  of  the  Japanese  feeling  for 
life  and  nature,  not  in  abstract  transcendence,  but  in  visible  concrete- 
ness (Plates  XLVI  and  XLVII).  Here,  surely,  was  a deviation  from  the 
original  spirit  of  Zen,  but  being  in  no  sense  revolutionary,  the  change 
was  carried  out  almost  imperceptibly  by  natural  adaptation  of  spirit  and 
method. 

In  this  connection  we  must  note  the  altered  form  of  Buddhist  doctrine 
which  became  the  faith  of  the  whole  Kano  family  as  well  as  of  Kdetsu  and 
his  followers.  The  new  creed  was  started  in  the  thirteenth  century  by  the 
monk  Nichiren,  and  was  founded  on  a broad  ambition  to  unite  the  best 
thought  of  all  religions  existing  in  Japan  through  the  teachings  of  the 
“Lotus  of  Truth.” 2 This  scheme  of  Buddhist  reform  was  replete  with 
national  ideas  and  laid  stress  on  the  necessity  and  possibility  of  transform- 
ing the  actual  world  into  a paradise,  — an  ideal  kingdom  of  perfection. 
Though  we  are  not  as  yet  able  to  point  out  the  intrinsic  connection  of  this 
Buddhism  with  the  art  of  the  Kano  and  Koetsu  schools,  it  is  none  the  less 
remarkable  that  Kano  Motonobu  worked  on  the  decoration  of  the  holy-of- 
holies  of  the  Nichiren  church,  and  that  Koetsu,  himself  a doctor  of  Nichi- 
renite  dogmatics,  dedicated  his  abode  to  the  service  of  a Nichirenite  mon- 
astery. What  Fenollosa  says®  about  the  Koetsu  school,  may  be  applied, 
in  a religious  sense,  to  a description  of  Nichirenism:  “It  is  neither  realism 
nor  idealism,  as  we  ordinarily  misuse  these  words ; it  attempts  to  give  an 
overmastering  impression,  a feeling  vague  and  peculiarly  Japanese,  as  if 
the  whole  past  of  the  race  with  all  its  passions  and  love  surged  back  in  a 
gigantic  race  memory  inwrought  in  the  inherited  nerves  — a patriotism  as 
gorgeous  and  free  and  colossal  as  one’s  grandest  dreams.”  Indeed,  Nichi- 
ren was  a great  visionary,  the  prophet  of  a universal  Buddhist  Church  and, 
at  the  same  time,  a hero  of  national  spirit;  and  it  can  hardly  be  a far- 

1 These  points  are  dealt  with  in  the  author’s  forthcoming  book  on  Japanese  Art  in  its  Relation  to  Social 
Life. 

2 See  chapter  i. 

’ Epochs  of  Chinese  and  Japanese  Art,  vol.  ii,  pp.  127-28. 


PLATE  XLVI 

A Cormorant.  By  Miyamoto  Musashi 


PLATE  XLVI 


A Cormorant 

By  Miyamoto  Musashi,  i582-i645 
Japanese,  Post-Ashikaga  Idealistic  School 

In  the  possession  of  Viscount  Matsudaira 

This  picture,  done  with  so  few  strokes,  achieves  a greater 
interest  from  the  fact  that  the  painter  was  a famous  master  of 
fencing  in  whose  mind  the  art  of  the  brush  and  the  art  of  the 
sword  were  fused  together  by  his  Zen  training. 

Painted  in  ink  on  paper  and  mounted  as  one  panel  of  a 
six-fold  screen. 


PLATE  XLVII 


Sparrow  and  Chrysanthemums.  By  Kenzan 


PLATE  XLVII 

Sparrow  and  Chrysanthemums 
By  Kenzan,  i663-i743 
Japanese,  Koetsu  School 
In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

Painted  in  pale  colors  on  paper  and  mounted  as  a kake- 
mono. 


THE  SECULARIZATION  OF  ZEN  ART 


6i 


fetched  interpretation  to  see  in  the  vigorous  national  style  of  the  Kanos 
and  of  the  K5etsu  school  an  influence  of  their  new  faith.  ^ 

Thus  the  secularization  of  Zen  art  proceeded  by  absorption  of  the  Zenist 
spirit  into  daily  life,  which,  in  turn,  was  purified  and  elevated  by  religious 
and  aesthetic  inspiration.  The  Zenist  would  say,  in  self-confidence,  that 
moonlight  could,  without  lessening  its  purity  and  brilliance,  penetrate 
everywhere  and  be  reflected  even  from  dust.  The  pure  moonlight  of  the 
Zenist  enlightenment  permeated  every  corner  of  social  and  domestic  exist- 
ence, primarily  through  tea  and  its  art,  what  Mr.  Okakura  has  called 
“Teaism.”  - Tea  is  believed  to  be  a calming  drink,  and  the  Zenists  used  to 
take  it  sitting  in  a quiet  room  around  a little  hearth  let  into  the  floor  as  a 
convenience  for  boiling  water.  This  meeting  of  those  who  were  united  in 
the  cult  of  serenity  became  a manifestation  of  the  religion  of  beauty,  — 
the  beauty  which  lies  in  subdued  tone  and  tranquil  mood.  The  tea-room 
was,  perhaps,  tiny,  but  it  was  always  scrupulously  clean  and  furnished  in 
the  simplest  way.  Similarly  the  garden,  as  well  as  the  trees  and  stones  in  it, 
were  arranged  in  accordance  with  the  “air-rhythm”  of  the  mind  purified 
by  Zen  culture.  On  one  side  of  the  room  there  was  a little  alcove,  dedicated 
to  the  cosmic  spirit  of  simple  beauty,  wherein  a small  landscape  painting 
or  a calligraphic  poem-writing  was  hung.  The  smoke  of  incense  rose  in  the 
dusk  of  this  space,  the  incense  which  never  irritated  the  senses  but  enabled 
one  to  inhale  the  essence  of  delicacy  and  composure.  A little  gong  sum- 
moned the  guests  to  this  tiny  chapel  of  purity ; they  proceeded  quietly  and 
glided  into  it ; then  they  drank  cups  of  tea  amid  surroundings  of  the  utmost 
calmness.  There  they  would  talk  only  of  things  outside  the  world,  “wind 
and  moon,”  “air  and  stream,”  or  anything  else  which  might  help  to  pacify 
their  minds. 

The  spirit  of  Zen  manifested  in  Teaism  penetrated  into  the  households 

* As  this  point  was  never  touched  by  art  critics  until  my  friend  T.  Sasakawa  called  attention  to  it,  the 
inherent  connection  between  Nichirenism  and  the  Japanese  schools  of  painting  now  awaits  further  re- 
search and  more  definite  elucidation.  The  work  done  by  Kano  Motonobu  at  Minobu,  the  sacred  place  of 
Nichirenite  Buddhism,  perished  in  a fire;  but  there  is,  I imagine,  still  a trace  of  the  great  Kano  master  in 
the  wall  paintings  of  lotus  flowers  decorating  the  chapel  of  Minobu  where  the  relics  of  the  Prophet  are 
piously  preserved. 

’ Mr.  Okakura’s  The  Book  of  Tea,  which  the  present  description  faintly  reflects,  is  an  admirable  intro- 
duction to  the  spirit  of  Teaism. 


02 


IV.  BUDDHIST  NATURALISM 


of  nobles  and  peasants  alike.  Every  Japanese  house  is  built  in  a style  more 
or  less  affected  by  the  atmosphere  of  the  tea-room,  and  in  the  main  rooms 
are  always  the  alcoves,  the  shrines  of  simple  beauty.  Beside  a picture  hang- 
ing within,  there  may  be  an  incense  pot,  a flower  vase,  a few  scrolls;  all 
other  furniture  is  carefully  excluded.  A family  may  possess  a rich  collec- 
tion of  paintings;  but  only  one  or  a pair,  at  most  a set  of  three,  would  be 
admitted  in  a room.  The  house  and  its  chambers  should  not  be  used  for 
an  exhibition  of  art  works,  because  real  enjoyment  of  art  should  be  con- 
centrated on  a few  precious  pieces.  The  garden,  its  trees  and  stone  lan- 
terns, the  pot  for  washing-water  usually  standing  on  a stone  alongside  the 
veranda,  even  the  interior  of  a latrine,  in  short,  everything  that  is  within  or 
around  the  house,  ought  to  partake  of  the  pinrity  of  the  chapel  and  express 
in  its  own  way  the  adoration  of  nature’s  beauty.  Thus  the  art  of  Zen  was 
secularized;  thus,  too,  the  abodes  of  man  were  purified;  and  throughout 
we  see  the  Buddhist  ideal  of  communion,  no  longer  made  sensible  in 
temples  and  statues,  in  ceremonies  and  rituals,  but  manifested  in  the 
homes  of  human  beings,  as  a religion  of  simple  beauty,  — a cult  of  nature 
and  of  spiritual  life. 


THE  END 


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Okakura,  K.  The  Airakening  of  Japan.  New  York,  1904. 

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Spooner,  D.  B.  Handbook  to  the  Sculpture  in  the  Peshawar  Museum.  Bombay,  1910. 
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Beal,  S.  Catena  of  Buddhist  Scriptures  from  the  Chinese.  London,  1871. 

Bigelow,  W.  S.  Buddhism  and  Immortality.  Boston,  1908. 

Carus,  P.  The  Gospel  of  Buddha.  Chicago,  1894. 

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Edkins,  J.  Chinese  Buddhism.  London,  2 ed.  1898. 

Edmunds,  A.  J.  Buddhist  and  Christian  Gospels.  2 vols.  Philadelphia,  1909. 

Eitel,  E.  j.  Handbook  of  Chinese  Buddhism.  T6ky5,  1904. 

Franks,  0.  (translator  in  extract).  Der  Dlgha-nikdya.  Gottingen,  1918. 

Getty,  A.  The  Gods  of  Northern  Buddhism.  Oxford,  i9i4- 

Grunwedell,  a.  Mythologie  des  Buddhismus  in  Tibet  und  der  Mongolei.  Berlin,  1901. 
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Lloyd,  A.  The  Creed  of  Half  Japan.  London,  1911. 

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Moore,  G.  F.  History  of  Religions.  New  York,  1914. 

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Oldenberg,  H.  Buddha,  sein  Leben,  seine  Lehre  und  seine  Gemeinde.  Berlin,  4 ed.  1908. 

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Vol.  II.  Buddhist  Suttas. 

Vols.  i3,  17  and  20.  Vinaya  Texts. 

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Beligious  and  Moral  Development  of  the  Japanese. 


INDEX 


Achala,  34-  See  also  Fiido  and  Immobile  Deity. 
Achilles,  12. 

.'Esop’s  Fables,  7 (note). 

Air-rhythm,  48,  49,  5o  {note),  53,  61. 

Aizen  (Raga),  PI.  XVIII. 

.\kasa-garbha,  44.  See  also  Kokuzo. 

Alexander,  12. 

Amatampadam.  See  Pathway  to  Immortality. 
Amita  (Amitabha,  Amitayus,  Amida),  Pis. 

XI-XIII,  XX. 

A-nan.  See  Ananda. 

Ananda,  Pis.  II,  IV  A,  XXXVI. 

Apollo,  12. 

Arhant,  55  (nole):  Pis.  XXXVI,  XXXVII.  See 
also  Rakan  and  Lo-han. 

Asoka,  King,  5,  ii;  PI.  HI. 

Asura,  PI.  XX. 

■Avalokitesvara,  44;  Pis.  II,  XX.  See  also  Kwannon. 

Renares.  See  Kasi. 

Rhaisajya-guru.  See  V^akushi. 

Bhaisajya-raja,  PI.  II. 

Bharhat,  ii;  PI.  II. 

Bija.  See  Shuji. 

Birushana.  See  Vairochana. 

Bodhi,  3 (nole),  ii,  19. 

Bodhidharma,  4?,  54  (nofe);  P/.  XXX.  See  also 
Daruma. 

Bodhisattva,  i4,  i5, 17, 28;  Pis.  II,  XI,  XIX,  XXVI. 
Bodhi  tree,  3 {nole),  ii;  PI.  III. 

Bonten.  See  Brahma. 

Bosatsu.  See  Bodhisattva. 

Bo  tree.  See  Bodhi  tree. 

Brahma,  3,  4 {note},  12,  25,  4o;  PI.  X. 

Buddha,  2,  3,  and  passim.  See  also  Sakya-muni 
and  Shaka. 

Buddha-land,  i5. 

Buddhas,  i5,  23,  34,  4o,  4a;  PI.  II.  5eea/soDhyani- 
buddha. 

Byodo-in,  27. 

Byzantine,  25  (note). 

Caitaka.  See  Seitaka. 

Caitya,  10. 

Cakra.  See  Wheel. 

Ch‘an-no.  See  Zen. 

Chen-yen.  See  Shingon 
Ch‘a-yeh.  See  Maha-Kasyapa. 

China,  5,  12.  i3,  2,5,  26,  32,  48,  5fi,  57,  5p  (note); 

Pis.  II,  VI,  XXXVIII. 

Chinkai,  PL  VI. 

Chou  Chi-chang,  Pis.  XXXVI,  XXXVII. 

Christ,  6,  i4  (note). 

Chuang  Tzu,  55  {note). 

Cintamani,  PI.  XX. 

Dai-Itoku  fYamantaka).  43,  45;  PI.  XVII. 
Dai-nichi  (Maha-Vairochana),  32,  37,  4o,  4i;  PI- 
XIV.  See  also  Great  Illuminator. 

Dance,  The  (Vajra-nrti),  4i-42. 

Dante,  6,  28. 

Darbha  Malli-putra,  PI.  XXXVII. 


Dariirna,  4v  {nole),J->g.  See  also  Bodhidharma. 
Dedication  (parinamana,  eko),  n,  10;  Pis.  II, 
XXXVI,  xxxVii. 

Dharma,  4,  19. 

Dharma-cakra.  See  Wheel  of  Truth. 

Dharmata,  i4  (nole). 

Dhrtarastra.  See  Jikoku-ten. 

Dhyana.  See  Zen. 

Dhyani-buddha,  4o. 

Diamond  Cycle  (Vajra-dhatu),  3g-42;  Pis.  XIV, 
XVI. 

Dogen,  5i  (nole). 

Dragon,  55;  Pis.  XV,  XXXIII; and  tiger,  58; 

PI.  XLIII  A & B. 

Egypt,  5. 

Ekayana,  8.  See  also  Sole  Road. 

Eko.  See  Dedication. 

Elephant,  8,  9 (nole),  ii,  55;  Pis.  Ill,  XXVI, 
XLIV. 

E-on.  See  Ilui  Yiian. 

Eshin,  Abbot  (Genshin),  2yj[L.,  46;  Pis.  I,  XI. 

Evil  Ones,  PI.  III.  See  also  Temptations. 

Fechner,  G.  T.,  32. 

Fenollosa,  E.  F.,  60. 

Field  of  Merits  (punna-kkhella,  punya-ksetra, 
fuku-den),  10. 

Flower,  The  (Vajra-puspa),  4i-42. 

Fra  Angelico,  28. 

Francis,  St.,  of  Assisi,  fi. 

Fudo  (Achala),  ,34,  '6y,  43;  PI.  XV. 

Fugen  (Sarnantabhadra),  45,  55,  5o;  Pis.  XXVI, 
XXVII  A,  XLIV. 

Fuku-den.  See  Field  of  Alerits. 

Gandhara.  PI.  IV. 

Garland,  The  (Vajra-mala),  4i-42. 

Gaya  (Buddha-gaya),  3,  ii. 

Gei-ami,  PI.  XL. 

Genre  painting,  2p-3o,  46,  5g. 

Genshin.  See  Eshin. 

Giotto,  6. 

Golden  Hall  (Kondo),  i5,  21;  Pis.  V,  VIII  A. 
Great  Assembly.  See  Maha-samaya. 

Great  Illuminator  (Maha-Vairochana),  32-35,  37, 
39-43;  PI.  XVI.  See  also  Dai-niclii. 

Greater  Vehicle.  See  Mahayana. 

Greece,  5. 

Greek,  i2-i3,  2.3. 

Guardian  Kings  (Shi-tenno),  21,  24;  Pis.  IX, 
XXVI. 

Han-Shan  (Kanzan),  56;  Pis.  XXXIX,  XLV. 
Himalayas,  2. 

Hlnayana,  i3  (nole). 

Hindu,  25,  3i,  4o,  45. 

Hirotaka,  Kose  no,  29  (nole). 

Hogai,  Kano,  17-18;  PI.  VII. 

Hokke-do,  17,  23,  24-25;  Pis.  VI,  VIII  B. 
Hokke-kyo.  See  Lotus  of  Truth,  The. 
Ilokke-mandala,  17,  23;  PI.  VI. 


72 


INDEX 


Horyu-ji,  i5,  22;  Pis.  II,  V,  VIII  A. 

Hosetsu,  PL  XXXV. 

Hsiao  Wu,  PL  XXXVIII. 

Hsieh  Ho,  48  {note). 

Hsien,  55.  See  also  Men  of  the  Mountains. 

Hui  Yuan,  PL  XXXVIII. 

Ichiji-kinrin,  PL  XIV.  See  also  Dai-nichi. 

Illuminator.  (See  Vairochana);  the  Great 

(see  Great  Illuminator). 

Immobile  Deity,  34,  87,  43.  See  also  Achala  and 
Fud5. 

Incense,  The  (Vajra-dhupa),  4i-42. 

Indestructibles  (Vajra),  4i-42. 

India,  2,  5,  8,  12,  19,  25;  PL  VI. 

Indian,  Pis.  II,  VI,  XIX. 

Indra,  12,  25,  4o;  PL  IV  A. 

Japan,  12,  i3,  26,  82,  48,  5y;  PL  II. 

Jewel  (Ratna),  89;  PL  XXL  See  also  Cinfarnani. 
Jikoku-ten  (Dhrtarastra),  PL  IX  (legend). 

Jittoku.  See  Shih-Te. 

Jizo  (Ksiti-garbha),  44;  Pis.  XXI,  XXVIII. 
Josetsu,  PL  XLH. 

Kaidan-in,  28,  24. 

Kakemono,  29  (note). 

Kano  school,  59-61. 

Kanshin,  PL  VI. 

Kanzan.  See  Han-Shan. 

Kapilavastu,  2. 

Kasi  (Benares),  4- 
Kasuga,  28;  PL  XXVIII. 

Kasuga  school,  46;  PL  XXIII. 

Kato  Chikage,  PL  XLIV. 

Kaurikara.  See  Kurikara. 

Keizan,  5o  (note). 

Kenzan,  PL  XLVH. 

Ketu,  PL  XXII. 

Kinkara.  See  Konkara. 

Koetsu,  5g-6i. 

Kokei  (Hu-hsi).  See  Laughers  of  Hu-hsi,  The  three. 
Kokuzo  (Akasa-garbha),  44;  Pis.  XXII,  XXIII. 
Komoku-ten  (Virupaksa),  PL  IX  A. 

Komu-s6,  54. 

Kondo.  See  Golden  Hall. 

Kongo-kai.  See  Diamond  Cycle. 

Konkara  (Kinkara),  PL  XV. 

Korea,  12,  19;  PL  II. 

Korin,  5g. 

Ksiti-garbha,  44-  See  also  Jiz5. 

Kuan  Yin  (Avalokitesvara,  Kwannon),  17  (note); 

PL  II.  See  also  Kwannon. 

Kudara.  See  Pekche. 

Kurikara  (KaurikaraP),  PL  XV. 

Kwannon  (Avalokitesvara,  Kuan  Yin),  17-18,  28, 
44,  55,  59;  Pis.  I,  VII,  XIII,  XIX,  XX,  XXVIII, 
XXXII,  XXXIII.  See  also  Avalokitesvara. 

Lamp,  The  (Vajra-aloka),  4i-42. 

Landscape,  47,  56-67;  PL  XXIX,  XLI,  XLH. 
Laughers  of  Hu-hsi,  The  three,  PL  XXXVIII. 
Lesser  Vehicle.  See  Hinayana. 

Lin  T‘ing-kuei,  Pis.  XXXVI,  XXXVII. 

Lion,  8,  9 (note),  ii,  55;  Pis.  XXIV,  XXXV. 
Lo-han,  55  (note).  See  also  Rakan. 

Lotus,  4,  II,  i5,  24,  .89;  PL  XX  B. 

Lotus  of  Truth,  The  (Sad-dharma-pundarika, 
Hokke-kyo),  4 (note),  6,  i^ff.  60;  PL  II  (legend). 
Lu  Hsiu-ching,  PL  XXXVl'il. 


Alaha-KaSyapa,  4g;  PL  II. 

Maha-samaya,  i3. 

Maha-Sthanaprapta.  See  Seishi. 

Maha-Vairochana,  82;  PL  XV.  See  also  Dai-nichi 
and  Great  Illuminator. 

Alahayana,  I'ijJ,  26;  PL  XXV 11  (legend). 
Makimono,  29  (note). 

Mandala,  i5,  38-42, 4-5-46;  Pis.  VT,  XVI,  XXVHI. 
Manjusri,  45.  See  also  Monju. 

Mantra.  See  Shingon. 

Mara.  See  Evil  Ones  and  J'emptations. 

Masanobu,  Kano,  69. 

Maurya.  See  Peacocks. 

Men  of  the  Mountains  (Hsien,  Scnnin),  55-.56. 

Men  Wu-kuan,  PL  XXX. 

Mikasa,  PL  XXVIII. 

Minobu,  61  (note). 

Miyamoto  Alusashi,  PL  XLVI. 

Moku-un.  See  Ryutaku  Ten-in. 

Monj\i  (Manjusri),  4-8-44.  45,  55;  Pis.  XXIV, 
XXV,  XXVII  C,  XXVIII,  XXXIV,  XXXV. 
Moon,  The,  4o;  PL  XXII. 

IMotonobu,  Kano,  5g-6o,  61  (note);  PL  XXXII. 

Nara,  i5  (note),  17  (note),  22,  28,  25  (note). 

Nepal,  i3  (note). 

Nichiren,  60-61. 

Nirvana,  8;  PL  IV  A. 

Okakura,  Kakuzo,  48,  55,  58,  61. 

Osaka,  22. 

Padma-pani,  PL  II. 

Parinamana.  See  Dedication. 

Patanjali,  PL  XVI  (legend). 

Pathway  to  Immortality  iamalam  padam),  8. 
Peacocks  (Maurya),  PL  HI. 

Pekche,  King  of,  19. 

Perfume,  The  (Vajra-gandha),  4i-42. 

Persian,  26  (note).  3i. 

Phoenix  Hall.  (Howo-do),  27. 

Planets,  PL  XXII. 

Play,  The  (Vajra-lasa),  4i-42. 

Prabhuta-ratna,  PL  II. 

Punna-kkhetta.  See  Field  of  Merits. 

Punya-ksetra.  See  Field  of  Merits. 

Raga.  See  Aizen. 

Rahu,  PL  XXII. 

Raik5-ji,  29  (note). 

Rakan  (Arhant,  Lo-han),  55,  5g.  See  also  Arhant. 
Ratna.  See  Jewel. 

Riku  Shusei.  See  Lu  Hsiu-ching. 

Rin-teikei.  See  Lin  T‘ing-kuei. 

Roben,  Abbot,  26  (note). 

Ryobu  Mandala,  45-46.  See  also  Syncretic  Mail- 
dala. 

Ryobu  Shinto,  45-46;  PL  XXVIII. 

Ryogen.  See  Sonan. 

Ryutaku  Ten-in,  PL  XLI. 

Sad-dharma-pundarika.  See  Lotus  of  Truth,  The. 
Sakya  clan,  2,  8. 

Sakya-muni,  Pis.  II,  VI.  SeeaAoShakaand  Buddha. 
Samantabhadra,  45.  See  also  Fugen. 

Sanchi,  ii;  Pis.  II,  HI. 

Sangha,  4,  5. 

Sasakawa,  T.,  61  (note)._ 

Seishi  (Maha-Sthanaprapta),  28;  Pis.  I,  XIII. 
Seitaka  (Caitaka?),  PL  XV. 


INDEX 


7-^ 


Sennin.  See  Hsien  and  Men  of  the  Mountains. 
Sesshu,  4?.  52,  53  (note),  57;  PL  XXIX,  XXXIII. 
Shaka,  Pis.  XXVII  B,  XXVIII,  XXXI.  See  also 
Buddha  and  Sakya-muni. 

Shakaku.  See  Hsieh  Ho. 

Shaku-hachi,  54. 

Shih-chia.  See  Sakya-muni. 

Shih-Te  (Jittoku),  56;  Pis.  XXXIX,  XL,  XLV. 
Shingon  (Mantra,  Chen-yen),  26,  3i-46,  48;  Pis. 

XVI,  XXI,  XXIV,  XXVI. 

Shinto,  45-46. 

Shi-tenno.  See  Guardian  Kings. 

ShShaku,  Soga,  PL  XXXVIII. 

Shomu,  Emperor,  25. 

Sh6s6-in,  25  (note). 

Shotoku,  Prince,  2oJf. 

Shubun,  Soga,  PL  XLI. 

Shuji  (Bija),  PL  XVI. 

Shu-kijo.  See  Chou  Chi-chang. 

Shunsho,  Katsukawa,  Pis.  XLIV,  XLV. 

Sole  Road  (Ekayana),  8,  10,  16. 

Sonan,  PL  XXXIX. 

Song,  The  (Vajra-giti),  4i-42. 

Stupa  (Thupa,  Tope),  10,  16;  PL  III. 

Suiko,  Empress,  20. 

Sukhavati-vyuha,  26ff. 

Sun.  The,  4o;  PL  XXII. 

Syncretic  IVIandala,  PL  XXVIII.  See  also  Ry5bu 
Mandala. 

Taiz6-kai.  See  Womb-Store  Cycle. 

Takuma  school,  27;  PL  XXVTI. 

Tamenari,  Takuma,  27. 

Ta-mo.  See  Bodhidharma  and  Daruma. 
Tamon-ten  (Vaisravana),  PL  IX  (legend). 

Tanyo,  Kano,  PL  XXXIV. 

Taoism,  55-57. 

T‘ao  Yuan-ming,  PL  XXXVIII. 

Tathagata,  3,  4-  See  also  Truth-winner. 

Tea,  42  (note),  61-62. 

Temptations,  The,  PL  IV  B. 

Tempyo,  22-26;  PL  XIX. 

Tenn5-ji,  22. 

Three  Treasures,  The  (Tri-ratna,  Ratna-traya, 
Sambo),  5,  20,  25. 

Tibet,  i3  (note). 


Tiger.  See  Dragon. 

To  Enrnei.  See  T‘ao  Yiian-ming. 

Todai-ji,  2.3iT;  Pis.  VI,  VIII  B. 

Tohaku,  IIa.segawa,  PL  XLIII. 

To-pao.  See  Prabhuta-ratna. 

Tosa  school,  46. 

Tranquil  Session  (Zazen),  5i. 

Truth,  16.  See  also  Dharma  and  Dharmata. 
Truth-winner  (Tathagata),  3-5,  8. 

Unkei  school,  PL  XIII. 

Ursa  Major,  PL  XXII. 

Utanosuke,  Kano,  PL  XXXI. 

Vacuity  Friars  (Komu-so),  54. 

Vairochana  (Lochana,  Birushana  or  Rushana), 
23. 

Vaisravana.  See  Tamon-ten. 

Vajra,  3g,  4i-42;  P/.  XVII,  XVIII.  5ee  a(so  Indes- 
tructibles. 

Vajra-pani,  PL  II. 

Vimaladatta,  King,  PL  II. 

Virudhaka.  See  Zocho-ten. 

Virupaksa.  See  Komoku-ten. 

Vulture  Peak  (Ghrdhra-kuta,  Ryoju-sen),  17. 

Wang  Chung-shu,  48  (note). 

Wen  Li,  PL  XXX. 

Wheel  of  Truth,  The  (Dharma-cakra),  4;  PL  XX. 
Wheel  (Cakra),  11-12;  PL  XXVI. 

Willow,  18. 

Wind-frame,  48,  5g. 

Womb-Store  Cycle  (Garbha-kuksi),3g-43;  PL  XVI. 

Yaku-6.  See  Bhaisajya-raja. 

Yakushi  (Bhaisajya-guru),  PL  XXVIII. 
Yamantaka,  43.  See  also  Dai-Itoku. 

Yamato  school,  PL  XXIII. 

Yao-wang.  See  Bhaisajya-raja. 

Zazen,  5o  (note),  5i. 

Zen,  42  (note),  47-62;  Pis.  XXX,  XXXI, 
XXXV,  XXXVIII,  XXXIX,  XLVI. 
Zend-Avesta,  32. 

Zeus,  12. 

Zocho-ten  (Virudhaka),  PL  IX  B. 


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